what is deviance?
Behavior that violates the standards of conduct or expectations of a group or society
social control
the techniques and strategies for preventing deviant human behavior in any society
conformity
going along with peers---individuals of our own status who have no special right to direct our behavior
obedience
compliance with higher authorities in a hierarchical structure
what is the difference between conformity and obedience?
conformity is changing ones behavior to align with a group or social norm and obedience is following the commands of an authority figure
Replications of Milgram's classic experiment
even with modern ethical considerations, a significant proportion of participants still demonstrate high levels of obedience to authority figures
informal social control
social control that is carried out casually by ordinary people through laughter, smiles, and ridicule
how do social norms relate to deviance?
highlighting the boundaries of acceptable behavior within a society and often playing a key role in social evolution
how do humans lead how to behave in social situations?
humans learn how to behave in social situations through a dynamic and lifelong process of observing, interacting, and adapting to the norms and expectations of their social and cultural environments.
the concept of differential association introduced by Edwin Sutherland
violation of rules results from exposure to attitudes favorable to criminal acts
functionalist view of deviance
a common part of human existence, with positive as well as negative consequences for social stability
anomie
the loss of direction felt in society when social control of individual behavior has become in effective
Robert Merton's anomie theory of deviance
an adaption of socially prescribed goals or of the means governing their attainment, or both
Social disorganization theory
crime and deviance are caused by the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions
racial profiling
any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a persons behavior
differential justice
differences in the way social control is exercised over different groups
theoretical approaches to deviance
aim to explain why individuals or groups violate social norms and how societies respond to such behavior
professional criminal
a person who pursues crime as a day-to-day occupation, developing skilled techniques and enjoying a certain degree of status among other criminals
organized crime
the work of a group that regulates relations between criminal enterprises involved in illegal activities, including prostitution, gambling, and the smuggling and sale of illegal drugs.
white-collar crime
illegal acts committed by affluent, "respectable" indivduals in the course of business activies
cybercrime
illegal activity primarily conducted through the use of computer hardware or software
hate crime
a criminal offense committed because of the offenders bias against race, religion, ethnic group, national origin, or sexual orientation
social inequality
a condition in which members of society have differing amounts of wealth, prestige, or power
social stratification
structured ranking of entire group of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society
slavery
a system of enforced servitude in which some people are owned by other people
what dictates the ranks in a caste system?
by rigid and hereditary social stratification
class systems
a social ranking based primarily on economic position in which achieved characteristics can influence social mobility
characteristics of the class system
a form of social stratification that organizes society into different groups based on economic, social, and political factors
what the differences between the upper and lower classes in the United States?
wealth and income, occupation, education, lifestyle, health and healthcare access
what are the differences between the upper-middle class and the lower-middle class?
income, occupation, education, and social influence
Marx's view on class differentiation
a differentiation as a product of economic relationships particulary under capitalism. The division between the bourgeoisie and proletariat leads to systemic inequality, exploitation, and alienation. Marx believed that class conflict was the driving force of historical change and envisioned a revolution that would eliminate class divisions, creating a classless society.
according to Blank______, increases in crime and deviance can be attributed to the absence or breakdown of communal relationships and social institutions.
social disorganization theory
which sociological perspective points out that the U.S. criminal code outlaws marijuana because of its harmful effects, yet cigarettes and alcohol—also producing harmful effects—are sold everywhere?
conflict perspective
marx examined social relations within the _____ system, an economic system in which the means of production are in private hands, and the main incentive is the accumulation of profits.
capitalist
in Max Weber's view, social stratification is driven by Blank______.
class, status, and power
what is the term for the kind of vertical social mobility that involves children and their parents?
intergenerational mobility
Which statements fit the ideas described in social disorganization theory?
-when communal relationships break down, crime and deviance tend to increase
- social problems increase when neighborhoods have deteriorating buildings and declining populations
a woman who works as a teacher's aide for years but eventually becomes superintendent of the school district experiences ______ social mobility.
intragenerational
which statement best describes conflict theorists' views on lawmaking?
Lawmaking is an attempt by people in power to force their norms and values on others.
what is the term for an economic system in which the means of production are held largely in private hands and the main incentive for economic activity is the accumulation of profits?
capitalism
Max Weber identified distinct components of stratification. Which of the following are the components?
-class
-status
-power
______ mobility involves changes in the social position of children relative to their parents.
Intergenerational
What is the term for the type of vertical social mobility that occurs in a person's lifetime?
intragenerational mobility
Wakana put her hair into a ponytail to match her friend's new look. Curtis took out the garbage as his mother asked. Darlene avoided cutting across the lawn; there was a "Keep off the grass" sign. Edwin did not speed while driving to work; he did not want a ticket.
Which individual is conforming?
Wakana
The social psychologist Blank______ made a useful distinction between conformity and obedience.
Stanley Milgram
Functionalists note that deviance creates both _____ and ______ consequences for social stability.
positive; negative
What did Émile Durkheim claim as an important function of punishing deviants?
It helps define acceptable behavior and thus contributes to social stability.
The term differential justice can best be defined as ______.
the type of treatment that different races, ethnic groups, or social classes receive from the criminal justice system
Karl Marx's main focus was on ______.
the effects social inequality had on all aspects of society
What was Karl Marx's main focus with respect to stratification in nineteenth-century Europe?
the effects of economic inequality
true or false. Weber agreed with Marx that the action of individuals and groups could be understood solely in economic terms.
false
Max Weber holds that a person devotes more energy and resources to the necessities of life when the person ______.
occupies a lower social position
Émile Durkheim used the term ______ to describe the loss of direction felt by individuals in a society when social control of individual behavior has become ineffective.
anomie
Recruits who enter military service typically ______ to the habits and language of other recruits and ______ the orders of superior officers.
conform; obey
The sociologist Edwin Sutherland used the term ______ for when people violate laws after being exposed to attitudes that are favorable to violation of the law.
differential association
What is the term for rights or immunities granted to people as a particular benefit simply because they are White?
White privilege
Which of the following are examples of advantages Peggy McIntosh found to be associated with White privilege?
-browsing freely in stores
-being around people of the same race
-cashing checks without suspicion
Which theory would hold the view that those in the majority use economic exploitation to perpetuate racial inequality?
conflict
We as a society tend to focus on discriminatory issues, such as income disparities or fewer women represented in management positions, rather than on the other, often overlooked, side of those discriminatory practices, which is:
privileges of the dominant group
Peggy McIntosh found that White privilege meant what?
White people's achievements are seen as personal achievements, not the achievements of an entire race.
A local women's shelter hosts a fundraising effort in which they set up a table in front of the big grocery store for a weekend. A volunteer speaks to people entering or exiting the store about the services they offer and solicits donations. On Saturday, Martha, a White volunteer, runs the table. On Sunday, Connie, a Black volunteer, runs the table.
Which scenario exemplifies White privilege?
On Sunday, the store manager received a dozen complaints about a "beggar" in front of the store, but he received none on Saturday.
What sociological perspective emphasizes that cooperative interracial contacts can reduce hostility?
labeling theorist
Which theory would hold the view that those in the majority use economic exploitation to perpetuate racial inequality?
conflict
What is the term for any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than a person's behavior?
racial profiling
The term used to refer to a group of people set apart from others by obvious physical differences is a ____ group.
racial
Because race is a social construction, the process of defining races is ______.
beneficial to those with power and privilege
Three sociological perspectives on race and ethnicity view the issue from a macro level. Which perspective views the problems on a micro level?
interactionists
What is one limitation of the exploitation theory, according to its critics?
It is too limited to explain the many forms of prejudice.
According to interactionist theorists, prejudice and discrimination ______.
-can be overcome with increasing contact between individuals from dominant and subordinate groups
-can be overcome with the establishment of interracial coalitions
According to the functionalist perspective of race and ethnicity, the dominant group that practices discrimination ______.
discourages the subordinate minority from attempting to question its lowly status
Which group is the largest group of racial minorities in the United States?
African Americans
the 2 classes Karl Marx identified in the capitalist economic system
bourgeoisie and proletariat
Weber definition of class
a group of people who have a similar level of wealth and income
characteristics of status
people who have the same lifestyle, independent of their class positions
Weber definition of power
the ability to exercise ones will over others
Kingsley Davis & Wilbert Moore's functionalist view of stratification
social inequality is necessary so that people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions
three major perspectives on social stratification
functionalist, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism
Gerhard Lenskis theory of stratification
economic systems change as their level of technology becomes more complex, beginning with hunting and gathering and culminating eventually with industrial society
objective method of measuring social class
a technique for measuring social class that assigns individuals to classes on the basis of criteria such as occupation, education, income,
gender and occupational prestige
refer to the relationship between an individuals gender and the social value or status attached to their occupation
income disparity in the United States
the significant and growing gap between the wealthiest individuals and families and the rest of the population
absolute poverty
a minimum level of subsistence that no family should be expected to live below
concept of social mobility
movement of individuals or groups from one position in a society stratification system to another
open stratification system
positions of each individual is influenced by their achieved status
closed stratification system
there is little or no possibility of individual social mobility
vertical mobility
movement of an individual from one social position to another of a different rank
horizontal mobility
movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank
racial group
a group that is set apart from others because of physical differences that have taken on social significance
racial formation
a sociohistorical process in which racial categories are created, inhabited, transformed, and destroyed
process of social construction of race
refers to the process by which society defines and categorizes people based on skin, color, facial features, or hair
ethnic group
a group that is set apart from others primarily because its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns
history of Native Americans
characterized by the experience of colonization, forced displacement, assimilation policies, and the ongoing struggle for self-determination
the groups of Asian Pacific Americans that lived in the United States
Chinese, Asian indians, Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese, Arab
the largest Asian subgroup in the United States
the Chinese population
history and culture of Arab Americans
marked by early immigration waves primarily from Lebanon and Syria, often driven by economic hardship and political instability, where they faced challenges like discrimination and assimilation pressures, particularly after the 1970s due to the Arab-Israeli conflict, while maintaining strong cultural elements like family values, religious diversity (including both Christian and Muslim communities), and cuisine
history and culture of Jewish Americans
examines the social patterns, structures, and cultural practices of Jewish people within the United States, focusing on aspects like religious observance, community dynamics, immigration waves, assimilation, discrimination, and the impact of major historical events like the Holocaust
dynamics of prejudice
a negative attitude toward an entire category of people, often an ethnic or racial minority
ethnocentrism
the tendency to assume that ones own culture and way of life represent the norm of are superior to all others
racism
the belief that one race is supreme and all others are innately inferior
stereotypes
an unreliable generalization about all members of a group that does not recognize individual differences within the group
color-blind racism
the use of the principle of race neutrality to defend a racially unequal status quo
discrimination
the denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups because of prejudice or other arbitrary reasons
concept of white privilege
rights or immunities granted to people as a particular benefit or favor simply because they are White
an example of white privilege
a Black graduate student falls asleep in a college form common area, a White student calls the police; when they arrive, they demand more identification from the Black woman than her college ID.
institutional discrimination
denial of opportunities and equal rights to individuals and groups that results from the normal operations of a society
four sociological perspectives on race and ethnicity
functionalism, conflict theory, symbolic, and intersection theory
functionalist perspective of discrimination
the dominant majority benefits from the subordination of people of color
racial profiling
any arbitrary action initiated by an authority based on race, ethnicity, or national origin rather than on a persons behavior
contact hypothesis
an interactionist perspective which states that in cooperative circumstances, interracial contact between people of equal status will reduce prejudice
gender roles
expectations regarding the proper behaviors, attitudes, and activities of men and women
gender-role socialization
children learn the gender norms and expectations of their society, including how to behave, appear, and express themselves
gender identity
how people see themselves, as male or female, or something else
sexual identity
the self-awareness of being romantically or sexually attracted to a defined group of people
functionalist perspective on gender
a social theory that views gender roles as a way to maintain order and stability in society
views of labeling theorist on sexual behaviors and sexual identities
argues that societal reactions to certain behaviors and identities can influence individuals' self-concept, relationships, and social standing
feminist perspective on gender roles
understanding and challenging the social, cultural, and historical systems that perpetrate inequality between genders
intersectionality
the overlapping and interdependent system of advantage and disadvantage that positions people in society on the basis of race, class, gender, and other characteristics
matrix of domination
the cumulative impact of oppression because of race and ethnicity, gender, and social class, as well as religion, sexual orientation, disability, age, and citizenship status
major sociological perspectives on gender
functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism
sexism
the ideology that one sex is superior to the other
how do male-dominated institutions treat both men and women?
disempowerment, sexual harassment, gender stereotyping, work-life balance struggles
how are women still viewed as second-class citizens?
gender pay gap, political representation, gender-based violence, reproductive rights and healthcare, stereotypes and gender norms, economic equality
what are the differences in wages for women and men?
in 2023, women in the U.S. earned83¢ for every dollar U.S. men earned(median, full-time, year-round).• Males earned $66,790• Females earned $55,240• 55,240/66,790=.827
feminism
an ideology that favors equal rights for women
norms
established standards of behavior maintained by a society (what to do and what not to do)
folkways
norms governing everyday behavior whose violations raises comparatively little concern
mores
norms deemed highly necessary to the welfare of a society
values
a collective conception of what is considered good, desirable, and proper-or bad, undesirable, and improper- in a culture
in all stratification systems, there are ________ between layers.
boundaries
in all stratification systems, progressively _____ layers get less of any socially valuable "stuff"
lower
the status of "school teacher" is an example of an ______ status
achieved status
what status is caste?
ascribed
what status is estate?
ascribed
what status is class?
achieved
which stratification system feature mostly ascribed status?
-slavery
-caste
-estate
which of the following statements about castes is false?
people who are deemed to be exceptionally brave may be promoted to a higher caste
capital is defined as _______
goods devoted to producing other goods
globalization
increasingly integrated global economy
what are the 3 factors in globalization?
-increasing free trade
-increasing free flow of capital
-cheaper overseas labor
globalization works partly by _____ access to cheap labor
allowing
In Marx’s conception of social class,what class would Roger the factoryowner be?
a member of the bourgeoisie
What is the main reason Qui Biaworks in the factory?
because her father expects her to help the family
The process in which racialcategories are created, inhabited,transformed and destroyed isreferred to as _____.
racial formation
As shown in the film, Hoffman cited highBlack mortality in the 1890s as evidencethat Blacks were genetically inferior.What major flaw did his study have?
it ignored the fact that blacks suffered much higher poverty and social neglect
When we say there is no geneticcharacteristic that all members of onerace have but no members of anotherrace have, we mean there is...
no concordance
Among all women in the U.S. in2023, women earned .827 of whatmen earned. What’s your guess?:Among college graduates in 2023,women earned _________compared to men.
less than .827
One reason gender is not the sameas sex is gender is _______ whilesex is _______.
cultural ideas; biologicalcharacteristics.
Over time, ____________ remainsconstant, while ___________varies.
sex; gender
In 2023, women earned _________ as much as men.
.83
Gender is not the same as sex. For one thing, biological sex _________ over time, while cultural ideas _________ over time.
remains the same; change