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Flashcards: Psychology: Approaches, Issues, and Debates
Absolute morality
this is based on the notion that the ends cannot justify the means; some acts are
Acculturation strategy
the approach adopted by members of ethnic groups, involving decisions about
Adaptive
the extent to which a behaviour increases the reproductive potential of an individual and
Alpha bias
the tendency to exaggerate differences between the sexes.
Androcentric bias
a bias in favour of males. An androcentric theory is based on research data on males
Beta bias
the tendency to minimise differences between the sexes.
Collectivist
a culture where individuals share tasks, belongings, and income. The people may live in large
Concordance rate
if one twin has a disorder or condition, the likelihood that the other twin also has it.
Conditioning theory
the view that all behaviour can be explained in terms of stimulus–response links.
Cross-cultural psychology
an approach in which different cultures are studied and compared.
Culture
the rules, morals, and methods of interactions specific to a group of people.
Derived etic
using a series of emic studies to build up a picture of a particular culture.
Determinism
the view that all behaviour is caused by factors other than one’s own will.
Diathesis–stress model
the notion that psychological disorders occur when there is a genetically
Eclectic approach
any approach in psychology that draws on many different perspectives.
Emic constructs
those that vary from one culture to another.
Empiricism
the view that all behaviour is the consequence of experience. The extreme “nurture” side of
Environment of evolutionary adaptation (EEA)
the period in human evolution during which our genes
Environmental determinism
the view that all behaviour can be explained solely in terms of the effects of
Environmental determinism
the view that all behaviour can be explained solely in terms of the effects of
Environmental reductionism
attempting to understand how the natural environment influences our
Equipotentiality
the view that essentially any response can be conditioned to any stimulus.
Ethnic groups
cultural groups (e.g., those defined by race or religion) living within a larger society.
Ethnographic approach
making comparisons between cultures with a view to learning more about a
Ethologists
those who undertake the biological study of animal behaviour, seeking to determine the
Etic constructs
universal factors that hold across cultures.
Falsifiability
the notion that scientific theories can potentially be disproved by evidence; it is the hallmark
Free will
the notion that we are free to make decisions.
Freudian slip
a mistake that betrays the concerns of the unconscious mind.
Gene
a unit of inheritance that forms part of a chromosome. Some characteristics are determined by one
Genetic determinism
the view that animal behaviour is caused by genetic influences; this view underpins
Genome lag
the notion that some behaviour is not adaptive because genetic changes over thousands of
Genotype
an individual’s genetic potential.
Hard determinism
the view that all behaviour is determined and is highly constrained by the current
Heritability
the proportion of the variance within a population in some characteristic (e.g., height) that is
Heterosexual bias
the notion that heterosexuality is more natural than, and preferable to, homosexuality.
Hormones
chemical substances produced by endocrine glands, and circulated in the blood. They only
Idiographic approach
an approach that emphasises the uniqueness of the individual.
Implacable experimenter
the typical laboratory situation in which the experimenter’s behaviour is
Imposed etic
the use of a technique developed in one culture to study another culture.
Individualist
a culture that emphasises individuality, individual needs, and independence.
Introspection
examination and observation of one’s own mental processes.
Kin selection
the view that the process of natural selection functions at the level of an individual’s genes
Liberal humanism
the view that all people, e.g., gays, lesbians, and heterosexuals, are equal and the ways
Machine reductionism
explaining behaviour by analogy with rather simpler machine systems.
Methodological behaviourism
the view that all psychological perspectives use some behaviourist
Methodological gender bias
designing a study on the effects of gender in a biased way so as to maximise
Micro-environments
environments created by individuals through their own behaviour and physical
Mutations
genetic changes that can then be inherited by any offspring.
Nativism
the view that people’s characteristics are inherited.
Natural selection
the process by which certain traits (and the associated genes) are perpetuated because of
Nature–nurture debate
the question of whether behaviour is determined by inherited factors or by
Neo-behaviourism
an extension of behaviourism to allow for some cognitive factors, e.g., Bandura’s
Neurotransmitters
chemical substances that are released at the junction between neurons (a synapse) and
Phenotype
the observable characteristics of an individual, resulting from the interaction between genes
Physiological determinism
the view that behaviour is determined by internal, bodily systems.
Physiological reductionism
explanations of complex behaviours in terms of simpler physiological
Physiological
concerning the study of living organisms and their body parts.
Programmed learning
a type of learning devised by Skinner and based on operant conditioning, in which
Psychic determinism
the view that adult behaviour or personality is predetermined by events in early
Radical behaviourism
the view that all behaviour is learned. Skinner was a radical behaviourist.
Reaction range
Gottesman’s solution to the nature–nurture debate in which genetic make-up (genotype)
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura’s concept that what one learns is affected by one’s characteristics
Reductionism
the notion that psychology can ultimately be reduced to more basic sciences such as
Relative morality
this is based on the notion that the acceptability of any act depends in part on the
Schemas
organised packets of information stored in long-term memory.
Scripts
sets of schemas that guide people when performing commonplace activities, such as going to a
Social constructionists
psychological theorists who assume that our knowledge of ourselves and of others
Social learning theory
the theory that behaviour can be explained in terms of both direct and indirect
Soft determinism
the notion that we should distinguish between behaviour that is very constrained by the
Speciesism
discrimination and exploitation based on differences between species.
Synapses
the extremely small gaps between adjacent neurons.
Transgenerational effect
if a woman has, e.g., a poor diet during pregnancy, her foetus suffers and may be
Vicarious reinforcement
the concept in social learning theory that reinforcement can be received