Glutamate
Primary excitatory transmitter of the brain, mediated by both ionotropic (fast) and metabotropic (slow) receptors, in hypoxemia or ischemia can lead to excitotoxic neuron death (cells "panic" and die)
GABA (Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid)
Primary inhibitory transmitter of the brain (GABA-A and GABA-B), mediated by both inotropic (fast) and metabotropic (slow) receptors
Acetylcholine
Primary neurotransmitter of the peripheral (PNS) nervous system, mediated by both ionotropic (fast) and metabotropic (slow) receptors, substantial role in both learning and memory, Interaction with dopamine plays large role in controlling motor function
Dopamine
Metabotropic, neurotransmitter of pleasure (also addiction and addictive behaviors), deterioration of pathways leads to motor dysfunction seen in Parkinson's disease, modulation of dopamine reduces or stops symptoms of schizophrenia
Serotonin(5-HT)
Metabotropic (with 1 exception: 5-HT3), derived from tryptophan (turkey dinner), converted to melatonin in the pineal gland, implicated in sleep-wake transition, alertness, motivation, appetite and pain modulation, inhibits aggression, SSRI drugs increase 5-HT levels in the brain
Histamine
Metabotropic, thought to play a role in sleep and wakefulness (sleepiness associated with histamine blockers are indicative of this)
Norepinephrine
Metabotropic, neurotransmitter of alertness and responsiveness, also influences mood and affect, suppression of NE release leads to sedation, neurological disorders resulting in attention deficits (ADHD, PTSD) have shown favorable responses to drugs that increase NE release (amphetamines)
GABA-A
Ionotropic: drugs for epilepsy, anxiety, and insomnia increase GABA-A (less likely to fire)
GABA-B
Metabotropic: muscle relaxers increase GABA-B (less likely to fire)
Fast receptors
Ionotropic
Slow receptors
Metabotropic
5-HT3 receptors
can cause nausea/vomiting, drugs like Ondansetron block these receptors
Peptides
Metabotropic, interact across the CNS and PNS
Peptide responsible for pain modulation, pleasure/reward, sedation, gut motility modulation
Opioid peptides: enkephalins, dynorphin, β-endorphin
Peptide responsible for stress, anxiety, fear and withdrawal
Corticotropin-releasing hormone
Peptide responsible for attachment and bonding
Oxytocin
Peptide responsible for affiliative behavior
Vasopressin
Peptide responsible for sleep-wake transitions, feeding, reward
Orexins A and B
Peptide responsible for feeding initiation
Neuropeptide Y
mildly painful stimuli is excruciating
hyperalgesia
pain is felt with a non painful stimulus
allodynia
Differentiating between upper and lower motor neuron lesions
Upper: hyperreflexia or increased spasticity Lower: hyporeflexia
Responsible for executive function (type A personality traits)0
Frontal lobe
Responsible for sensory perception
Parietal Lobe
Responsible for visual processing
Occipital lobe
Responsible for auditory processing
Temporal lobe
Responsible for fine motor movement and learning motor skills. Only part of the brain where injury manifests on same side as injury
Cerebellum
movements that fluctuate between overshooting the target orundershooting the target
Dysmetria
the inability to conduct rapidly alternating movements such as tapping thumb and forefinger together, or alternately touching the palm of the hand and the back of the hand to the leg
Dysdiadochokinesia
pleasure center of the brain
nucleus accumbens
Double vision
Diplopia
Normal and concerning changes with concussion
Normal: diplopia or blurred vision Concerning: cognitive or motor changes
Two types of strokes
Ischemic: block bf to brain Hemorrhagic: bleeding in the brain
Pathology of seizures
increased sodium channel activity or decreased potassium channel activity
Neurofibrillary tangles, tau proteins and amyloid plaque formation are all associated with
Alzheimer's Disease
autoimmune disorder leading to the destruction of acetylcholine receptors-resulting in loss of muscular control and muscle wasting
Myasthenia Gravis
Pain modulation
Descending pain modulation by NE and 5-HT and endogenous opioids. Ascending modulation by glutamate.