c,h,o. NITROGEN and sometimes sulfur (common but its not always there)
what are proteins used for?
hormones, enzymes, many things
other than cho, what elements do nucleic acids contain?
nitrogen and phosphorus
is nucleic acid or nucleotide the subunit(smaller)?
nucleotide
what 3 main parts are nucleotides made of? (covalently bonded)
base, sugar, phosphate
how can we see if a nucleotide is rna or dna?
look at the ribose sugar. deoxy = dna, oxy = rna
what is the general structure of an amino acid.
(its amine not amino idk why it says that)
what is amine (chemical formula w elements)
NH2
how can you recognize a fatty acid?
carboxyl, CH3 (methyl) and chain of CH2 (methhylene) in between
how do we know if a fatty acid is (mono/poly)unsaturated or saturated
the amount of double bonds between carbons. carboxyl doesnt count . its saturated because no more hydrogen can be added. no double bonds = unsaturated one double bond = monounsaturated 2 or more = polyunsaturated
how can we know if its alpha or beta glucose? (if have another way of remembering replace)
look at the first carbon, if H is on top its alpha, if OH is on top/ H is on bottom then its beta.
what is condensation
water releasing (used for anabolic reactions; building molecules)
what is hydrolysis
it splits water. catabolic reactions need water to happen (break down molecules)
whats a glycosidic bond?
bw 2 monosaccharides. the 1st carbon and 4th carbon bond
who discreidted vitalism by synthethically creating urea
frederich wohler
what was wohler trying to create when he made urea
ammonium cyanate
what is vitalism
belief that organic molecules are made with a vital force and not physical elements
what enzyme breaks down proteins into amino acids
protease
describe a peptide bond
take out OH of carboxyl and one H of the methyl(CH3) (so it makes H20). then the nitrogen and carbon are connected, combining the 2 amino acids.
what enzyme catabolizes lactose into galactose and glucose
lactase (and water) . it breaks the glycosidic bond
what is this
glucose
what is the differnece between the structure of glucose and galactose
switch OH and H on the 4th carbon
is fructose a hexose or pentose
hexose. it looks like a pentose but theres a extra CH2OH
what are the three most common forms of monosaccharides
trioses, hexoses, pentoses
what monosaccharides is maltose made up of
2 glucose
what is lactose
sugar foudn in milk. made of glucose and galactose
what is sucrose
table sugar. glucose and fructose
connection between 1st and 4th carbons
a glycosidic bond - straight chain
connection bw 1st and 6th carbon
glycosidic bond - bent
what is the differnece between a straight/bent chain glycosidic bond
straight = bw 1st and 4th carbons bent = bw 1st and 6th carbons
where is galactose found (real life)
milk, and cereals
where is fructose found in real life
fruits and honey
how sweet is fructose
sweetest naturally occuring carb
what are polysaccharides often (length and shape)
long, maybe branched
what type of molcules is cellulose made up of (spec type of monosaccahride)
β-glucose
how are the molecules in cellulose bonded
hydrogen bonds
what are bundles of cellulose called
cellulose microfibrils
what is THE special trait of cellulose (hint: structure )
high tensile stregnth. this precents pplant walls from bursting even under high water pressure
why cant i eat grass???!!!??!?!?!!!!!!!!!!!!!!?
humans do not have the neccessary enzymes to break down bonds bw β-glucose molecules. Grazing anaimls and bacteria in their gut have the enzymes (why not meeeeeeee)
what type of monosaccharide are amylose and amylopectin made of
alpha glucose
how are molecules in amylose+amylopectin oriented and whats an effect of this
they are oriented the same way. this means the molecule is curved
how are the carbons linked (which to which) on amylose+ amylopectin
1-4 via condensation
amylopectin: what type of chain and its effect on shape and size
branched; globular shape, it can be bigger
is amylose branched/unbranched and its effect on shape
unbranched; forms a helix
what is another name for starch (2) (what its made up of)
amylose and amylopectin
what is the more common name for amylose/amylopectin. (what it makes up)
starch
do plants or animals make starch
plants. animals can digest/use
is starch soluble
yes; but too large to be soluble in water
what is starch's effect on osmotic balance of cells
osmotic balance: cause too much water to enter cells it does not affect it
why is starch useful for energy storage
it is easy to add and remove glucose from it. in potatos/seeds glucose is held as starch
how is starch used in leaf cells
a temporary store when there is too much glucose being made
glycogen formula
(C6H10O5)n
how many subunits does glycogen have usually
~30,000
describe the sturcture of glycogen (bent, etc. )
it branches many times and its compact bc Condensation reactions link carbons 1-4 on the next α-glucose. •If branches occur where a condensation reaction is, then it links carbon atom 1 – 6. it coils so it is good for storage
who makes glycogen
animals and also some fungi
where is glycogen stored in humans
liver and some muscles. its used when large amounts of glucose would cause problems
why is glycogen used as a energy storage (osmotic balance )
•Glycogen does not affect the _osmotic__ balance of cells, i.e. cause too much water to enter them •It is easy to add or remove extra glucose molecules to glycogen •Therefore glycogen is useful in cells for glucose, and consequently energy, storage.
what functional groups do all fatty acids contain
carboxyl, methyl (CH3)
trans fat has bend or no
no bend. trans = straight
are the hydrogen on the same side in cis isomer
yes
are cis or trans fats more common
cis
what is an effect of bends in molecules
makes it more loosely packed
what state of matter are cis isomers lipids usually in
liquid
what state of matter are trans isomers lipids usually in
solid
are trans isomers loosely or densely packed
dense. tightly
no double bonds - Saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated?
saturated
1 double bond - Saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated?
monounsaturated
5 double bonds - Saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated?
polyunsaturated
give examples of foods high in monounsaturated fat
●Olive, peanut, and canola oils ●Avocados ●Nuts such as almonds, hazelnuts, and pecans ●Seeds such as pumpkin and sesame seeds
give exmaples of food high in polyunsaturated fats
●Sunflower, corn, soybean, and flaxseed oils ●Walnuts ●Flax seeds Fish
what is coronary heart disease
coronary arteries being blocked by fat deposits
what is the bond between glycerol and fatty acids called
ester bonds
what hydrolyzises triglycerides (enzyme)
lipase
function of lipids
insulation, protection, storage
funtion of phospholipids
structure - they ae a main component of cell membranes
main purpose of steroids
hormone signalling (testorone)
what type of tissue are lipids stored in
adipose tissue (fat) - located immediately beneath skin and around some organs (kidneys)
how does the amount of energy released (in cell respiration )from lipids compared to carbs/protein
lipids release double the amount 2:1
how much denser in terms of energy storage is lipids compared to carbs
1/6
why is glycogen neccesary when we have fat
its faster. too much glucose at once is bad
what is one thing (energy storage) that glucose does that fats/fatty acids cant
anaerobic. aerobic - fatty acids and glucose can do
what level storage molecule is glycogen
intermediate
list some problems with BMI
- not a good indicator of metabolic health (30%) - doesnt account for muscle mass, water, etc. - its for populations not individuals
peptide bond
c-n
what do the polypeptides that all organisms use have in common? (hint: same buildiing blocks )
they are all made up of a combo of the same 20 amino acids. what differs is the combination
what happens in ribosomes
polypeptide synthesis
what substance tells ribosomes what polypeptide to make
messenger RNA (mRNA)
what is the primary structure for protein (1st stage of synthesis)
amino acid sequence. its the order formed by covalent peptide bonds
whats another word for unbranched
straight chain
what is the process of DNA telling informtaion to RNA called? (DNA _____ the instructions to RNA)
transcription
what is the verb for RNA sending the instructions to the ribosome
translation
what is the genetic code?
sequence of bases on mRNA it tells the ribosome which amino acids to use in polypeptide synthesis
what are some examples of properties that amino acids can have
polar/hydrophilic, nonpolar/hydrophobic, +/- charge (ionic )some have sulfur
what do properties of amino acids/polypeptides affect?
how it folds up into a protein during the third stage
whats the alpha helix
a coiled secondary protein structure. results from a hydrogen bond every fourth amino acid
how does the secondary structure happen (how is it bonded)
hydrogen bonds between the H in NH3 and O in carboxyl
whats the beta pleated sheet
a secondary structure of protein. formed by hydrogen bonds between parallel proteins
what is tertiary structure primarily dependent on?
interactions between R groups
whats a disulfide bridge
tertiary structure. strong covalent bonds between 2 sulfur atoms (from a R group) ex is cysteine
what are ionic bonds (in proteins)
bond bw positively and negatively charged side chains
where do hydrophobic chains go in a protein relative to the other ones
inside, because it wants to get away from the water.
how do we know if something is a quaternary structure
made up of multiple polypeptide chains. the structure is dependent on interactions bw the seperate polypeptide chains
whats a conjugated protein
it functions with chemical groups that aren't polypeptides quaternary structures only
whats a example of conjugated protein
hemoglobin each polypeptide chain contains an iron containing molecule called a heme group.
shape of fibrous and globular protein
fibrous: long and narrow. globular: spherical and rounded (globe = earth = round)
what function do fibrous and globular proteins have
fibrous: structural. strength and support globular: catalyctic, transport
is fibrous proteins soluble or insoluble (generally )
insoluble globular is the opposite: soluble
is globular soluble or insoluble
soluble. globular = circular = water (like a water droplet) fibrous is the opposite: insoluble
what is a trait of the amino acid sequence of a fibrous protein
its repetitive
what is a trait of the amino acid sequence of a globular protein
the sequence is irregular. no pattern
is fibrous or globular more stable (sensitivity to heat, pH, etc.)
fibrous is more stable: less sensitive, more resistant to change
provide a few examples of fibrous proteins (dont need all, just a few)
collagen, myosin, actin, keratin, elastin
provide a few examples of globular proteins (dont need all, just a few)
catalase, haemoglobin, insulin, immunoglobin
what is a difference in where the R groups are between fibrous and globular proteins? (hint: it has to do w water)
●●In globular proteins the hydrophobic R groups are folded into the core of the molecule, away from the surrounding water molecules, this makes them soluble. In fibrous proteins the hydrophobic R groups are exposed and therefore the molecule is insoluble.
what have biotechnologically produced (made by humans) proteins allowed us to do?
•enzymes for removing stains in clothing detergent •monoclonal antibodies for pregnancy tests •insulin for treating diabetics Disease treatments
what are GMOs often used to do (in relation to proteins)
they are used to produce proteins. its a difficult and expensive process though
how do proteins help with cell adhesion?
they make adjacent animal cells stick together. ex: adherens
what are membrane transport proteins used for?
facilitated diffusion and active transport, and also for electron transport during cell respiration and photosynthesis. diffusion = spreading
which category of macromolecules (carbs, lipids, etc.) are receptors (for hormones and stuff) made up of?
proteins.
what are histones?
a type of protein Histones are associated with DNA in eukaryotes and help chromosomes to condense during mitosis. it condenses/packs the dna
what are immunoglobins
antibodies. a type of protein
whats rubisco
ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase it is an enzyme that catylzes the reaction that turns carbon dioxide into more useful stuff (like carbohydrates), (what it turns into is kinda complicated and prob doesnt matter so prob dw about specifics)
where is rubisco found in high concentrations
leaves, algal cells (in algae )
what type of cell in which part of the body is insulin secreted from
beta cells in the pancreas
what does insulin do
signal cells to open up to take in glucose. it therefore reduces concentration of glucose in blood (cus the glucose goes out of the blood, into the cell(s))
what happened to the insulin of type 1 diabetics
they dont make enough so they need to inject some synthetic insulin