Flashcards: BIOL 1720 TEST 2

The maximum volume of air that can be inhaled and exchaled

Mammals, birds, reptiles

MY BLOODY RALENTINE

Amphibians, fish

Negative feedback loop

PCO2 increases --> pH of blood and cerebrospinal fluid decreases --> ventilation increases by blowing off CO2

Chemosensors in the aorta and carotid arteries (which signals the breathing control centers)

4 (2 alpha and 2 beta)

4

Allosteric cooperation

There is less O2 available in water than in air

long fibers

myofibrils

Thick filaments and thin filaments

Staggered arrays of myosin molecules

Consist of 2 strands of actin and 2 strands of a regulatory protein

Sarcomere

Z lines

M lines

Calcium ions (Ca2+)

stimulus leading to contraction of a muscle fiber

Varying the number and varying the rate

-Contracts slowly

-Sustains longer contractions

-ALL oxidative

-Contracts rapidly

-Sustains shorter contractions

-Glycolytic or oxidative

-Fast concentration speed

-Aerobic respiration

-Intermediate rate of fatigue

-Many mitochondria

-High myoglobin content

Concentration of a dissolved substance

Concentration of all solutes that contribute to the osmotic pressure of a solution (depends on the number of dissolved particles); determines the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane

Same concentration of solutes

Lower relative concentration of solutes

Higher relative concentration of solutes

Expends energy to control water uptake and loss in a hyper/hyposmotic environment

Animals that cannot tolerate substantial changes in external osmolarity (most animals)

They constantly lose salts and gain water by diffusion from their hyposmotic environment

By excreting large amounts of dilute urine and replacing salts by active uptake across the gills and diet

They constantly lose water by osmosis and gain salt by diffusion

By drinking seawater and excreting salts across gills, excreting salts and retaining water by kidneys, and diet

A solution that contains more solute than the cell which is placed in it (withered cells)

A solution in which the same amount of solute and solution is available inside of the cell and outside of the cell

A solution that contains less solute than the cell which is placed in it (fat cells)

Ammonia (NH3), Urea, Uric Acid

-Most Toxic

-Freely diffuses across the whole body surface or through gills

-Need access to lots of water

-Fish/Aquatic animals

-Less toxic, requires energy

-NH3 converted to urea in liver, then excreted by kidneys

-Requires less water

-Amphibians, sharks, mammals

-Least toxic, most expensive

-Does not dissolve readily in water

-Can be secreted as a paste with little water loss

-Insects, birds, reptiles

Filtration, Reabsorption, Secretion, Excretion

(Farting Rats Scream Excitedly.)

Filtration: blood pressure forces water and small solutes through capillary bed into excretory tubule; cells and large molecules remain in the blood

Reabsorption: Valuable solutes actively reclaimed back into the blood (glucose, amino acids, etc.); wastes and non-essential solutes remain

Secretion: Nonessential solutes and wastes are added to the filtrate (toxins, excess ions)

Excretion: Processed filtrate containing nitrogenous wastes is released

Located on either side of the vertebreal column; connected to a ureter; consists of a renal vein/artery, medulla, cortex, and renal pelvis

In the renal pyramid among the cortex and medulla

Stepwise processing of blood filtrate

Salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules

NaCl and Urea

Salts and nutrients are actively reabsorbed; water follows passively by osmosis; as the filtrate passes through the proximal tubule, materials to be excreted become concentrated as water is being reabsorbed in the capillaries

Freely permeable to water through channels formed by aquaporin proteins, but very low permeability for NaCl and other small solutes. Water moves out freely by osmosis; filtrate becomes increasingly concentrated

Ascending loop of Henle is impermeable to H2O, but permeable to NaCl so NaCal initially passes into interstitial fluid freely by diffusion

Gradient becomes unfavorable for passive diffusion of NaCl --> active transport required; movement of NaCl along ascending limb helps maintain osmolarity of medulla; filtrate becomes increasingly dilute as NaCl is reabsorbed

Reabsorption of NaCl and H2O

Secretion of h+ and reabsorption of HCO3- ions

Aquaporin channels allowed water to be reabsorbed; impermeable to salts; solutes become increasingly concentrated; in the inner medulla, high concentration of urea drives passive reabsorption that helps to maintain high osmolarity of interstitial fluid in this region

Aquaporin channels are absent; impermeable to water; salts actively reabsorbed; hormones control absorption of water in collecting ducts by regulating aquaporin channels

Prevents water loss by regulating water retention by making the collecting duct epithelium more permeable to water

increases

decreases

Helps reabsorb water and some solutes across the plasma membrane

Primarily eats plants and algae

Primarily eats other animals

Regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae

Food particles are engulfed by phagocytosis; food vacuoles fuse with lysosomes containing hydrolytic enzymes

Breakdown of food particles outside of cells; occurs in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal's body

-Animals with simple body plans

-Have a digestive sac

-functions in both digestion and distribution

-Animals with more complex body plans

-Complete digestive tube/tract: runs between two openings

-Can have specialized regions that carry out digestion and absorption in a stepwise fashion

Comprised of organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing (accessory glands, oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, intestines, etc.)

Secretes digestive juices through ducts into the alimentary canal

Salivary glands (oral cavity), pancreas, liver, gallbladder

Peristalsis and Sphincters

Rhythmic contractions of muscles in the wall of the canal push food along

Valves that regulate the movement of material between compartments

Oral cavity

Deliver saliva to the oral cavity

Amylase and Mucus

Enzyme that initiates chemical digestion via the breakdown of glucose polymers

A viscous mixture of water, salts, cells, and glycoproteins (mucins) that functions to lubricate food and protect the oral cavity.

bolus

Junction that opens to both the esophagus and the trachea

Leads to the lungs

Conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis

Upper third (voluntary)

Lower two thirds (involuntary, peristalsis)

Moves the bolus down, and another sphincter is relaxed as it approaches the stomach

-Stores food and processes into a liquid suspension

-Secretes gastric juice that performs chemical digestion

-Creates chyme

Mixture of ingested food and gastric juice

Parietal cells and chief cells

Secretes hydrogen and chloride ions separately into the lumen (cavity) of the stomach

kills bacteria and denatures proteins

Secrete inactive pepsinogen, which is activated to pepsin when mixed with HCl

A protease, or protein-digesting enzyme, that cleaves proteins into smaller peptides

-Maintaining the components of gastric juice separate or inactive prior to secretion

-Mucus production

-Rapid regeneration of the epithelial layer (every 3 days)

-Longest section of the alimentary canal

-Major organ of digestion and absorption

-Where most enzymatic hydrolysis of macromolecules occurs

Duodenum

Chyme mixes with digestive juices from epithelial lining, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

Bicarbonate and enzymes

Neutralizes and buffers low pH from stomach

Amylase, Lipase, Proteases, Nucleases

Breaks down sugars

Breaks down fats

Breaks down proteins (trypsin, chymotrypsin)

Breaks down nucleotides

Provides bile for emulsifying lipids

Due to villi and microvilli that are exposed to the intestinal lumen; creates a brush border that increases the rate of nutrient absorption

maximize surface area for absorption through folds, villi, and microvilli

Carries nutrient-rich blood from the capillaries of the villi to the liver, then the heart

-Regulates nutrient distribution via interconversion of organic molecules

-Detoxifies foreign substances

Liver, gallbladder

aids in digestion and absorption of fats within the small intestine; destroys nonfunctional red blood cells

triglycerides

chylomicrons

Lacteal

Large veins that return blood to the heart

cecum, colon, rectum

aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small and large intestines meet

Completes the recovery of water; houses rich community of bacteria; processes remaining waste (feces, including undigested material and bacteria)

rectum

Two sphincters between the rectum and anus

diffusion

???

is converted to bicarbonate ions.

from CO2 or H+ binding to hemoglobin

four

Vital capacity

Negative pressure

increase in partial pressure difference

myosin cross-bridges binding to actin

less resistance to fatigue

a motor neuron and all muscle fibers something ???

Conformational change in troponin

Z line

excrete large quantities of water.

isosmotic; seawater

shrivel

humans

Uric acid

proteins and nucleic acid

the selective elimination of ions something else ????

Filtration

regulates pH

thin segment of the ascending whatever ?????

sweating-induced dehydration

not effectively make many necessary proteins

transport lipids from the intestine to other organs

Absorption

polysaccharides

parietal

protein

emulsify fats in the duodenum 

Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

Herbivores

Water and blood flow in the same direction

<3%

increases; decreasing

release of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

solvents (ex. water)

it regulates internal osmolarity, but can only tolerate a narrow range of external osmolarity. 

mouth

gastric parietal cells