Cognitive Processes:
Memory and Problem Solving
Chapters 8 and 9
Memory Defined and The
Information Processing Model
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Defining Memory
The persistence of learning over time through storage and
retrieval of information
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Today, memory is often seen as steps in an informationprocessing model
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Much of what we have learned about memory comes from cases
of memory loss or extraordinary memory
Russian journalist Shereshevskii (case reading)
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Information Processing is similar to how computer works
3 Stages of Memory Formation
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968)
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Initial recording of information as fleeting sensory memory (1)
Processing of this information in short-term memory (STM), where
we encode it through rehearsal (2)
 Also known as working memory
 We process what we pay attention to of all the incoming
sensory stimuli we are bombarded with
 Working memory also associates new information with old
information from LTM
Moving of information into more permanent long-term memory
(LTM) for later retrieval (3)
Memory ability varies from person to person
 Those with better working memories tend to exhibit high
intelligence
 Those with better memories tend to maintain better focus on
tasks
Automatic Processing

Because the brain engages in parallel processing, it
automatically gathers information about many things
without us even knowing!
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Space – automatically recalling where a term was on a
slide
Time – automatically recalling the sequence of events
Frequency – automatically keeping track of how many
times you have done something
Well-learned information – automatic processing of
very familiar information like words we know
New tasks that may begin as effortful can become
automatic if we expose ourselves enough!
DEMO

DO NOT write down the following list. Listen and
read them, then try to recall them when prompted:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
CLINTON
RUJ
FET
TEXTBOOK
NAV
BUSH
FULFILL
GEF
MANDATE
FET
47
TAL
Demo #1:
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Bike
Cookie
Pillow
Desert
Sky
Marker
Small
jacket
Building
Watch
Round
Grass
child
Demo #2:
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Window
Pen
Car
Desk
Shorts
Sign
Computer
Clock
Poster
Chair
Cone
Fence
pole
Effortful Processing

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While some information is automatically and
effortlessly processed, some requires focus and
attention
Attention is defined as selection certain information for
further processing

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We normally pay attention to only a small portion of
incoming information
We pay attention to things according to…
• Meaningfulness
• Distinctiveness
• Repetition

Broadbent’s Cocktail Party Phenomenon: we tune
out other sounds to focus on what is important
Memory:
Ebbinghaus’ Contributions
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Can increase memory ability through rehearsal
Hermann Ebbinghaus scientifically studied his own memory
of verbal information in the 19th century.
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Memorized a list of nonsense syllables
The more he rehearsed, the more he remembered
The more time spent on learning, the more we remember
One of the important memory phenomena discovered by
Ebbinghaus is the overlearning effect.
 continue to practice memorizing a list beyond that required
to produce two perfect recalls.
 For example, if it required 10 repetitions to memorize the list,
then you might continue for an additional ten repetitions -this would be "100% overlearning."
The effect of overlearning is to make the information more
resistant to disruption or loss.
Memory:
Ebbinghaus’ Contributions
The more the
syllables were
rehearsed
(praticed) on
the first day of
learning, the
fewer
rehearsals it
took to relearn
them on the
second.
Making Memories Last…
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Information quickly learned is
information quickly lost!
Spacing Effect: distributed
study time yields better longterm retention than massed
practice (cramming)!
Testing Effect: more
frequent quizzing or
previously studied material
yields better long-term
retention
Bottom line: spread your
studying out over time and
quiz yourself frequently!
Period 6 Before Test Day…..
The Serial Position Effect:
Benefits of Rehearsal + Working Memory
 When
we are given a list of
things to remember, we often
remember the first items and
last items on the list.
 This is called the serial
position effect.
 We are able to rehearse those
at the beginning the most and
those at the end are still in our
working memory!
 Primacy
Effect: tendency to
recall the first items on the list
 Recency Effect: tendency to
recall the last items on the list
Memorize these words:
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Shoe
Chair
List
Face
Lamp
Tree
Coat
Apple
Couch
Sword
Dog
Lion
Cup
Shark
What We Encode:
Levels of Processing
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When we hear the sounds that comprise words, we use context and
experience to determine meaning.
 E.g. “Eye-Screem” – is it “ice cream” or “I scream”?
 We tend not to remember literally what we read or heard, but rather
the general meaning
We use several types of encoding to process verbal information
 Visual (structural) encoding of images
 Acoustic (phonetic) encoding of sounds
 Semantic encoding of meaning
Our brains process each type differently
 Levels of Processing Theory says deeper levels of processing
result in longer-lasting memories (i.e. semantic memory is best)
 Paivio’s Dual Code Theory says that we remember best when we
use both semantic and visual encoding.
What We Encode:
Levels of Processing
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Which type of encoding – visual,
acoustic or semantic – helps us
to remember best?
Craik and Tulving (1975)
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Subjects forced to encode
words in the three ways
Visually (is it capitalized?)
Acoustically (does it rhyme
with…)
semantically (Would it fit into
the sentence?)
Found that semantic encoding
yielded best recall!
Spend TIME learning and make
MEANING out of what you wish
to recall!
Self-Reference Effect: meaning
that is personal – relate
information to ourselves.
Bransford and Johnson (1972) had subjects read the following paragraph:
The procedure is actually quite simple. First you arrange things into different groups
depending on their makeup. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how
much there is to do. If you have to go somewhere else due to lack of facilities that is the
next step, otherwise you are pretty well set. It is important not to overdo any particular
endeavor. That is, it is better to do too few things at once than too many. In the short run
this may not seem important, but complications from doing too many can easily arise. A
mistake can be expensive as well. The manipulation of the appropriate mechanisms
should be self-explanatory, and we need not dwell on it here. At first the whole procedure
will seem complicated. Soon, however, it will become just another facet of life. It is
difficult to foresee any end to the necessity for this task in the immediate future, but then
one never can tell.
How many “f”s- Acoustic
Encoding

Finished files are the results of years
of scientific study combined with the
experience of years.
Remember this:

The angry rioter threw the rock at the
window.
Sequence of Information
Processing
Storage: Sensory Memory
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If you can recall information, it must first be stored!
According to Atkinson and Shiffrin’ 3-step model, the
first stop is sensory memory or the sensory
registers.
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Only holds an exact copy of sensory stimulus for a few
fractions of a second.
More information enters our sensory memory than will
get to STM
Sperling’s partial report technique illustrates the
limitation of sensory memory.
• When subjects were told to report ALL 9 letters flashed for a
fraction of a second, they could not, but when subjects
instructed to report 3 of the letters (one row of 3 letter row
display of 9 total letters) they could do so with few errors
• This proved that sensory memory could hold the
information, but only very briefly
Storage: Sensory Memory
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Sensory memory holds information just long enough to
recognize and transfer it to STM for further processing
This happens through selective attention
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Selective attention allows only a small percentage of
sensory messages that bombard us to enter conscious
awareness.
It is controlled not only by the focus of our attention but
also the expectancies we have prior to exposure
Iconic sensory memories (icons) are visual
representations that last only about a seconds in
sensory memory
Echoic sensory memories (echoes) are auditory
representations that may last for a few seconds (need a
longer period to process language)
Storage: Short Term Memory
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STM (working memory) is what is in your mind RIGHT
NOW.
Information in STM only remains there for about 20-30
seconds
STM is very sensitive to interruption and interference
Brown, Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the
storage capacity of STM
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Subjects presented with a stimulus and asked to
immediately count backwards (rehearsal prevented)
By 20 seconds of backwards counting, the previously
presented stimulus was forgotten
Storage: Short Term Memory
Unless information in STM is
important/meaningful or is actively rehearsed, it
quickly vanishes from STM and is displaced by
whatever comes into our minds next
 Displacement occurs, then, when new
information enters STM and pushes old out
 STM storage capacity is limited: the average
adult can hold about 5-9 bits or chunks of
information in STM
 George Miller (1956) Magical Number Seven,
plus or minus two

Storage: Short Term Memory
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Remember the following number:
18122001198417891945
Storage: Short Term Memory
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The number is 18122001198417891945
Chunking
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Memory span is a measurement of STM capacity
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The process of organizing or grouping separate bits of information
into larger units or chunks, can increase STM storage capacity.
e.g. 1812 2001 1984 1789 1945
It measures the largest number of items that can be recalled perfectly
from STM after only one presentation
No study/rehearsal time is allowed
Sometimes used as a component of IQ tests
In STM, acoustic coding seems to dominate – especially for
verbal information
Information in STM may be new or retrieved from LTM to be
thought about and used.
Storage: Long Term Memory
LTM is our permanent storehouse for information
 It includes all knowledge we have accumulated,
all the skills we have learned, and all our
memories of past experiences
 The more meaningful the information, the more
easily it can be stored in LTM
 Unlike STM, LTM seems to have unlimited
storage capacity
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Storage: Long Term Memory
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Information in LTM seems to be organized
New facts are learned by fitting them into a
network of pre-existing knowledge
 Propositional network theory

• we store the smallest bits of meaningful information
(propositions represented by circles or nodes) and
create links (represented by arrows) to other nodes.
• e.g. the proposition “dog” may be linked to the other
nodes “bark,” “fur,” and “four legs.”
DOG
Fur
Bark
4 Legs
LTM: Types
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Two Broad Types of Memory Circuits
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Declarative Memory includes facts such as names, dates,
and events (sometimes referred to as explicit memory)
• Can be rapidly learned and forgotten
• Usually consciously accessed
• Subdivisions
• Semantic memory refers specifically to factual information
• Episodic memory includes our personal or autobiographical
experiences

Procedural Memory includes skills such as remembering
how to ride a bike, play a musical instrument or eat with a
fork (sometimes referred to as implicit memory)
• Typically learned by repetition and practice
• Difficult to unlearn
• Often performed without conscious thought
LTM: Types
LTM: Types
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Eidetic imagery refers to visual
LTMs
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Eidetic memory is characterized by
relatively long-lasting and detailed
images of scenes that can be
scanned as if the individual were
physically present
Rare in adults – more frequent in
children
Steven Wiltshire – eidetic memory
Flashbulb memories are remarkably
vivid and seemingly permanent
memories
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typically of highly emotional and
personal events in one's life
What makes the flashbulb memory
special is the emotional arousal at the
moment that the event was registered
to the memory.
Biological Basis of Memory
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Memories are not located in one part of the brain
Lashley (1950) tested this
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created lesions in the brains of rats who had learned a maze.
Despite having damaged areas, memory was only weakened, not
obliterated
Synaptic Changes and neurotransmitters
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We already know that experience physically changes the brain
When learning takes place, more serotonin is released at certain
synapses
This makes the neurons in this network more likely to fire, as
sending neurons are more likely to fire and release
neurotransmitters and receiving neurons seem to increase their
receptor sites.
This process is called Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
ACh also plays a role in memory; Alzheimers patients lack of
Biological Basis of Memory
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Impact of LTP
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Memory enhancement?
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Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning
Drugs that enhance it increase memory
ability
LTP inhibiting drugs can actually erase
recent learning
CREB protein boosters may help trigger
LTP
Neurotransmitter glutamate may also
enhance LTP
ECT (electroconvulsive therapy) and
head trauma may disrupt memory and
learning as LTP in process is not
completed
Biological Basis of Memory
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Stress Hormones and Memory
 When we are excited or stressed, we produce more hormones
that make more glucose energy for the brain
 This leads to increased activity in the amygdala in the limbic
system, which is also involved in the formation of memories
 Stronger emotions = stronger memories; weaker emotions =
weaker memories
 Helps to explain flashbulb memory
Hippocampus and explicit memories
 Responsible for transferring STM to explicit LTM
 Prolonged exposure to stress hormones can actually shrink the
hippocampus and inhibit memory
 Damage can disrupt movement of information to cortex (LTM)
Cerebellum processes implicit memories and classical
conditioning (unconscious processes)
Where Are Memories
Stored?
Retrieval: The Basis of Memory
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Retrieval involves accessing information from LTM so
that it can be used or examined in STM
Retrieval cues help us gain access to a memory
Methods of measuring retrieval:
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Recall is when material must be remembered with few or no
retrieval cues (free response test)
Recognition involves tasks loaded with retrieval cues; material
must be remembered through identification (e.g. multiple choice
test)
Relearning indicates the time saved when learning material for
the second time (obviously, some learning was remembered)
Recognition is far easier than recall; we remember more
than we can recall
Retrieval Cues
The more retrieval cues you have (like strings
attached to whatever it is you wish to
remember), the more likely you are to recall.
 Priming
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The activation of associations in memory – often
unconscious.
 Can shape our interpretation of events
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Vegetables!!!!!!!!!! 
Priming Demo
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Group 1:
Unscramble the
letters to make
words:
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ocw
nhe
erohs
ogd
tca
sfih
eap
tgoa
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Group 2:
Unscramble the
letters to make
words:
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tluetec
rortac
neab
rcon
yecler
ottmao
eap
cbocrlio
Retrieval Cues
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Context can also serve as a retrieval cue
 Sometimes referred to as locus dependent learning
 Putting ourselves in the same environment we were in when we
learned something may help us to later recall the learned
information
 Helps to explain déjà vu (literally meaning “already seen”) where
similar contexts may trigger memories even when we are in new
settings
Mood can also have an impact on memory
 State-dependent memory says that we recall information learned
in one state when we do so in that same state
 e.g. learn information “high” – we may recall it better when “high”
again! (of course sober-sober is BEST!!)
 Mood-congruent memory says that we tend to recall experiences
consistent with our current mood – good or bad
 e.g. we recall how fabulous our childhood was when we are feeling
happy, and how heinous it was when depressed
Retrieval:
Serial Position Effect
People tend to recall the first items (primacy
effect) and last items (recency effect) in a list
 Demonstrates how short- and long-term
memory work together
 Primacy effect reflects long-term memory
 Recency effect reflects short-term memory
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Retrieval:
Serial Position Effect
Forgetting
#
Forgetting
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While we may curse ourselves for forgetting things, it is
good that we can get rid of useless information that
would otherwise clutter out thoughts
In general we may experience encoding failure,
storage decay, and retrieval failure
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Encoding failure is when information is never really
learned – it never makes the cut from STM to LTM
Storage decay happens when we do not use
information in memory and it fades
Retrieval failure occurs when there are not enough
retrieval cues available to prompt remembering
Consolidation failure occurs when disruptions prevent
permanent memory from being formed
Forgetting: Encoding Failure
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Because of
selective attention,
we only attend to
very little of what
we are exposed to
Unless there is
effort, memories
do not form
e.g. What does a
penny look like?
Yaaa I forget
so fast!
Forgetting: Storage Decay
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Even after
encoding has
occurred,
sometimes we
later forget
things
Ebbinghaus
researched this
as well and the
results of his
experiments
yielded the
famous
“forgetting
curve”
Forgetting: Retrieval Failure
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The information is there, but we cannot access it!
Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon occurs when we are
confident that we know the information but cannot retrieve
it due to a lack of retrieval cues. Though we cannot recall
it, we can often recognize it.
Interference occurs when some information may get in
the way of your ability to retrieve other information
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Proactive interference: inability to recall new information
due to prior learning
Retroactive interference: inability to recall older information
as a result of new learning
Sometimes, prior learning can facilitate the learning of new –
e.g. knowing the rules of baseball may help in learning
softball
Distractor studies?
Interference
Forgetting:
Consolidation Failure
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Memories new to long-term memory take time to be
firmly implanted
Disruptions in this process can prevent permanent
memory from being formed
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Retrograde Amnesia – loss of memory for events
occurring for periods prior to brain injury
Anterograde Amnesia – loss of memory for events that
happen after brain injury
Infantile Amnesia – failure to consolidate information in
memory before age 3, perhaps due to underdeveloped
brain and limitations in comprehension
Motivated Forgetting

Sometimes we simply “forget”
what happened – but why?
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Many stages of memory
processing – much can be lost
along the way
Repression – a Freudian
defense mechanism that
pushes anxiety and guiltarousing thoughts, feelings and
memories out of conscious
awareness
Many memory researchers
believe that repression rarely, if
ever, occurs – especially if the
memory is emotional
Memory Construction
Memory Construction
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Gilbert (2006) “Information given after an event alters the memory of the
event”
Implications? What you are asked and the way you are asked can lead
you to remember the event differently!
Loftus’ research
 “How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?”
OR
 “How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?”
 The question determined the response, though all subjects saw the
same video
 Research on eyewitness testimony?
Misinformation Effect
 When given incorrect information about an event, we tend to
remember it incorrectly
 Even imagining events that did not occur may create false memories
 Suggesting something happened can make us believe it did when
asked to recall later!
True or False?


Source Amnesia: attributing memory of an event (real or imagined) to
an incorrect source; e.g. believing that you experienced something that
you only heard about or saw on TV.
Reconstructive memory
 Due to source amnesia and misinformation, we can have “false
memories” we believe are true (“fill in gaps” when memory fails)
 This is dangerous when we consider eyewitness testimony
 Children’s underdeveloped frontal lobes make them more susceptible
to false memories - accusation of child abuse?
 Repressed/recovered memories of abuse?
• Abuse happens – we do not want to dismiss legitimate accusations
• Forgetting happens – especially concerning child abuse when kids may not
comprehend what is happening
• It is normal to recover memories, but when they are retrieved by therapistaided techniques such as hypnosis of sedation, they are suspect
• Infantile amnesia (pre-age 3) makes memories before this age unreliable
How to Improve Memory

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Mnemonics are strategies you may use to improve memory
Mnemonists are people with extraordinary memory
 Rehearsal: elaborative rehearsal is better than rote rehearsal!
 Organization of material in meaningful ways
 SQ3R – survey, question, read, recite, review
 Overlearning
 Metamemory – be aware of how memory works
 Spaced practice – shorter sessions over an extended period of
time – better than massed practice
 Peg Word System – image + word you associate, then assign new
material to each peg visually
 Minimize interference
 Maximize retrieval cues – state, location
 Get enough sleep!
Thinking and Language
Chapter 9
Thinking
Cognition: all mental activities associated
with thinking, including memory, knowing,
communicating
 Cognitive psychologists study all of the
following :

Creating concepts
 Solving problems
 Making decisions
 Forming judgments

Concepts
I’m the
prototype
.

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
Mental category or label that represents a class
or group of objects, people or events that share
common characteristics or qualities.
Concepts help us organize our thinking
We organize concepts into category hierarchies
(cars, cats, flowers, etc.)
 Artificial concepts refer to those where each
member of the concept has all of its defining
properties while no non-member does, e.g.
squares must have 4 corners and 4 right angles.
 Natural Concepts have no set defining features
but have characteristic features instead, e.g.
birds where the object could be a chicken,
sparrow or ostrich
• Members of the concept have some
characteristics of it
• We compare possible members to prototypes,
objects/events that typically represent the natural
concept
• Fuzzy concepts?

Concepts HELP but don’t provide all the answers
Problem Solving: Steps

Steps involved in problem solving:


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
Understanding the Problem
Planning a solution strategy
Carrying out the solution
Evaluating progress toward goal/results
Problem representation

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the first step in problem solving – can help or hinder
how we frame or interpret the problem
We can approach problems visually, verbally, mathematically and
concretely with objects; we may create a matrix to keep track of all
possible combinations
e.g. If we only see the problem of high national debt as a lack of tax
revenue, we are limiting ourselves in coming up with other viable
solutions to the problem that may be more effective – and more
appealing – to the people.
Possible Solution Strategies
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Algorithms - Step-by-step methods that guarantee a solution; can be
tedious and time consuming
Heuristics - Rules of thumb that may help simplify a problem but do not
guarantee a solution
Insight – “Aha!” moment
Hill Climbing - Move progressively closer to goal without moving
backward
Subgoals or Means-End Analysis - break large problem into smaller,
more manageable ones, each of which is easier to solve than the whole
problem
Working Backwards - Start with a solution/goal and figure out how to
get there
Trial and Error – One solution after another is tested; time consuming
Incubation – Put problem aside and engage in an unrelated task before
coming back
Expertise/Artificial Intelligence – Usually computer programs used to
solve specific problems; however, sometimes this involves rigid sets that
could hinder finding solutions
Problem Solving Obstacles

Confirmation Bias



Mental sets



Tendency to only consider information that supports preconceived
ideas rather than paying attention to contradictory evidence
e.g. “Short people have complexes” – only of “overconfident” short
people and ignore humble ones
Tendency to perceive a problem that use past experiences to
frame the problem a certain way – can help or hinder.
e.g. 9 dot problem? (must think outside the box!)
Functional Fixedness


a type of mental set that typically hinders, since you can only see
things objects in terms of their customary usage
e.g. Record problem
Creative Problem Solving



Creative problem solving – generating solutions that are both
unusual and useful
Divergent thinking – produces many different correct answer to
the same question (often creative)
Convergent Thinking – one correct answer is expected (typically
not creative but linear thinking)
Creative Problem Solving


Brainstorming - a way to get over sets where
you use divergent thinking to come up with
multiple ideas/possibilities to solve a problem.
Remote Association Test (RAT) is one
measurement of creativity



Requires divergent thinking
Modest correlation between creativity and
intelligence
Highly creative people tend to have above average
intelligence, but having a high IQ doesn’t guarantee
creativity
Decision Making Models

We must make decisions all the time – but how?
Compensatory Model – making a decision by
allowing attractive attributes to compensate for
unattractive ones (e.g. “The car looks all banged
up but gets great gas mileage”)
 Non-Compensatory Model – does not allow
some attributes to offset others (e.g. “Dude, that
girl is busted – I don’t care how nice she is I will
not date her”)
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Decision-Making Heuristics
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Heuristic processes are used when decisions involve a
high degree of ambiguity
Representativeness heuristic
 New information is compared to our model of the typical
member of a category (prototype)
 Could lead us to ignore other relevant information
 e.g. Robbie the waiter, The guy with dreadlocks
Availability heuristic
 Decision is based on information that is most easily
retrieved from memory, even if incomplete
 e.g. More words that start with “r” or have “r” as third
letter?
Faulty Decisions?
Overconfidence, Belief Perseverance, Intuition

Overconfidence
 Our tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our
knowledge and judgments
 e.g. we may believe we can finish a paper/study for a test
much more quickly than we actually can.
 People who are overconfident may often be wrong – and
the mistakes may be costly – but they tend to be happier
and feel more comfortable making decisions

Belief Perseverance

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Tendency to cling to our initial beliefs even after these
decisions have been discredited
The more we justify our initial belief, the more difficult it is
to let it go when proven wrong
To reduce BP, imagine the opposite perspective
Decisions Making:
Intuition, Framing and Pressure

Intuition

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Framing

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
Automatic “gut reaction” not involving explicit reasoning
Can lead us to sound decisions, but also careless ones.
The manner in which information is presented
Research has demonstrated that framing can have a
profound impact on decision-making
e.g. “95% success rate” vs. “5% failure rate” a success?
“85% lean” vs. “15% fat” ground beef?
High Pressure


When decisions are required quickly, experience plays a key
role
With increased pressure in an emergency situation, decision
making often deteriorates and can end in panic
SEE YOUR ETEXT FOR THIS IN
LARGER FONT – A GREAT SUMMARY!
Explaining Our Decisions

Hindsight bias

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Tendency to view the impact of our decisions as inevitable
and predictable after we know the outcome
e.g. “We would have been miserable together” (after
deciding to get a divorce)
Counterfactual thinking


Thinking about alternative realities and things that never
happened
Often takes the form of “If only I had…”
Language
Language
Language is defined as a system of
signs and symbols based on specific
rules (grammar) used to communicate
 Very complex human ability
 A unique ability?

Parts of Language

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Parts
 Phonemes - sounds
 Morphemes- smallest units that have meaning
 Semantics – meaning in language
 Syntax – rules that determine how words are combined in a
language
 Phonetics – how sounds are put together to form words
 Grammar – culmination of rules for generating language (includes
phonetics and syntax)
 Pragmatics – social aspects of language (politeness, conversational
rules)
Psycholinguistics – study of the psychological mechanisms related
to language acquisition
Top Down Processing vs. Bottom Up Processing?
 TD – Meaning/Thought  production of sounds
 BU – Sounds  derive meaning
Theories of Language Acquisition
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Nature vs. Nurture?
Critical periods
Noam Chomsky (Nature)
 Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
 Surface Structure vs. Deep Structure (Jane bought the
carrot, the carrot was bought by Jane- different surface
forms, same deep structure)
 Transformational Grammar Theory- we need only “learn”
words, not structure of grammar- this is inborn
Skinner’s learning theory (Nurture)
Linguistic Determinism (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) Language determines thought
Linguistic Relativity – Thoughts/experiences determine
language
Language Development
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Cooing/Cruing
Babbling
Holophrase and 1-word speech
2-word speech
Telegraphic Speech “doggie bite face!”
Verbs and modifiers added
Syntax acquired
Overgeneralization/overextension- “goed”
Motherese
Hey
there!
Non-Verbal Language
I got
into
college!
Whaa?
Mime be
gone!
Facial expressions and
Paul Ekman’s work
 Emblems (gestures)
and body language

No!
I
refuse
to
look
at
that.
Check out my
fine dance
moves
Who’s
your
daddy!?
Here take this
I will destroy you, broccoli man!
Hmm…
should
assist in
the
pummelin
g of
Broccoli
man?
Animal Thought
Do animals think?
 Animals are capable of more than we thought!

Forming concepts? Even pigeons!
 Insight (Kohler)
 Tool use
 Numerical ability (arithmetic)
 Transmission of cultural patterns (primates)
 Altruism
 Self Awareness


AJ the fabulous bird
Animal Language

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Can animals “talk?”
They DO communicate, but is it
language?
Primate Language

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

Washoe (above) learned to sign
and teach her adopted son to
sign, too. She expressed
sadness when told “Baby dead”
after her infant died, and
expressed happiness when given
a surrogate baby to care for

Use of signs and symbols
Novel combinations of signs would
indicate a higher level of cognitive
processing
Vocalizations with different meanings
Gestured communication/facial
expressions
Koko the Gorilla, Washoe the Chimp,
Kanzi the bonobo