Europe in 1914
th
19
Century Politics
Political Changes between 1815 and 1914
• Prussia & other states = Germany
• Italy is united
• New nations in the Ottoman Empire
Serbia, Albania, Montenegro, Greece,
Romania, Bulgaria (BALKAN PENINSULA)
• New nations: Belgium, Norway
By A. Finemess
www.SchoolHistory.co.uk
The Causes of WW1
•Militarism
•Alliances
•Imperialism
•Nationalism
•Significant individuals
MAIN Causes of the War
Imperialism
–
–
–
–
Definition: policy in which a strong nation
seeks to dominate other countries politically,
economically, and/or socially
European countries competed for colonies in
Africa and Asia
Dominated by Great Britain and France (Italy
and Germany were late to take colonies)
Compete for influence in the Balkans
Imperialism
• All the great powers were competing
for colonies / territory.
• The British feared Germany in Africa.
• The Austrians feared Serbia / Russia
in the Balkans
European Imperialism in Africa
European Imperialism in Asia
Nationalism
–Deep Devotion to One’s Nation
–Competition and Rivalry developed
between European nations for
territory and markets
• (Example France and GermanyAlsace-Lorraine)
Crisis and Wars in Europe in late 1800’s
and early 1900’s
• Austria-Hungary lost a war to France in 1848
• Austria-Hungary lost a war to Prussia in 1866
• Germany defeats France in the Franco-Prussian War(1870-1871)
-Germany receives Alsace-Lorraine from France
• United States defeats Spain in the Spanish-American War(1898)
• Japan defeats Russia in the Russo-Japanese War(1904-05)
• France and Germany almost go to war over Morocco(1905& 1911)
• The Pig War between Austria-Hungary and Serbia - a economic war
not military
• Italy defeats Turkey in the Tripolitanian
War(1911)
• The Balkan League(Serbia, Montenegro,
Bulgaria & Greece) defeated the Ottoman
Empire(Turkey) in the First Balkan War(1912)
• Serbia and Greece defeat Bulgaria in the
Second Balkan War(1913)
Otto Van
Bismarck
•Chancellor of
Germany from
March 1871 –
March 1890
•Bismarck
resigned at
Wilhelm II's
insistence in
1890
Kaiser Wilhelm II
Rein: 15 June 1888 – 9 November 1918
Militarism 1.
• Germany was
competing with the UK
to build battleships.
• The British feared an
attack on their Empire
Militarism 2.
• Germany was
competing with Russia
and France to expand
their armies
1880
• Germany
• France
• Russia
1914
1.3m 5.0m
0.73m 4.0m
0.40m 1.2m
Arms Race and the First World War:
Increase in Spending
Defence Spending, 1870-1914
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
£m
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1914
94
130
154
268
289
398
There was a four-fold increase in defence spending of the great powers, 18701914.
Arms Race and the First World War:
Armies - 3
As well as their STANDING ARMIES, the nations introduced
CONSCRIPTION, so they also had large numbers of trained RESERVES.
All the nations except Britain had HUGE armies.
Arms Race and the First World War:
Navies - 2
Both BRITAIN and GERMANY started building Dreadnoughts – the most
advanced class of warship in the world. The Dreadnought essentially reduced
everybody else’s number of warships to zero.
Arms Race and the First World War:
Navies - 3
Building Dreadnoughts, 1906-1914
8
6
4
2
0
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
Germany
0
0
4
3
1
3
2
3
1
Great Britain
1
3
2
2
3
5
3
7
3
There was a race between Germany and Britain to build the most
Dreadnoughts. The graph shows the number built each year.
Arms Race and the First World War:
Navies - 5
Total Dreadnoughts
30
25
20
15
10
5
1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914
Germany
0
0
4
7
8
11
13
16
17
Britain
1
4
6
8
11
16
19
26
29
0
In the end, Britain’s built many more Dreadnoughts than Germany.
1879
The Dual Alliance
1881
Austro-Serbian Alliance
1882
The Triple Alliance
Germany and AustriaHungary made an alliance
to protect themselves from
Russia
Austria-Hungary made an
alliance with Serbia to stop
Russia gaining control of
Serbia
Germany and AustriaHungary made an alliance
with Italy to stop Italy from
taking sides with Russia
1914
Triple Entente (no
separate peace)
1894
Franco-Russian Alliance
Russia formed an alliance
with France to protect
herself against Germany
and Austria-Hungary
Britain, Russia and France
agreed not to sign for peace
separately.
1907
Triple Entente
This was made between
Russia, France and Britain
to counter the increasing
threat from Germany.
1907
Anglo-Russian Entente
This was an agreement
between Britain and Russia
1904
Entente Cordiale
This was an agreement, but
not a formal alliance,
between France and Britain.
Alliances and the First World War:
Essential Background - Fact 1
World War I was all about the place of Germany in Europe
Alliances and the First World War:
Essential Background - Fact 2
France and Germany hated each other! When Germany became united
country in 1870-1, France went to war to try to stop it … but got WHOPPED!
Alliances and the First World War:
Essential Background Fact 2 (cont.)
France also lost Alsace-Lorraine in 1870-1.
The French never forgave the Germans. They wanted REVENGE.
Alliances and the First World War:
Germany in the Middle
Germany’s BIG problem was that it was IN THE MIDDLE.
That made it VULNERABLE if it came to a war.
Alliances and the First World War:
Three Emperors’ League, 1881
In the 19th century, Germany’s brilliant Chancellor, Bismarck,
solved this problem by keeping friends with RUSSIA and
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY (the Dreikaiserbund).
Alliances and the First World War:
Triple Alliance, 1882
Then Bismarck allied with Italy and Austria-Hungary (the TRIPLE
ALLIANCE, 1882).
Together with his friendship with Russia, this kept Germany safe.
Alliances and the First World War:
Germany encircled
But when Kaiser Wilhelm became Emperor, he dumped the Russian alliance.
He kept the Triple Alliance, but this did NOT solve the problem of
Germany’s encirclement.
Alliances and the First World War:
Franco-Russian Alliance, 1892
Instead, in 1892, Russia made an alliance with FRANCE.
Although it was only a DEFENSIVE alliance, it was Germany’s worst
nightmare!
Alliances and the First World War:
Entente Cordiale, 1904
… which allowed Britain to make the Entente Cordiale (‘friendly
relationship’) with France in 1904.
Alliances and the First World War:
Triple Entente, 1907
In 1907 Russia joined Britain and France to make the Triple Entente.
So by 1914 Europe had divided into two massive superpower blocs.
People thought this BALANCE OF POWER would keep the
peace.
Alliances and the First World War:
The Balkans
But Russia was also allied to Serbia, Romania and Bulgaria. When
trouble erupted in the Balkans in 1914, the nations found their alliances
dragged them into war…
Alliances and the First World War:
How the Alliances caused war
… like mountain climbers tied to the same rope.
(i.e. it is arguable that THE SYSTEM OF ALLIANCES CAUSED WORLD
WAR ONE.)
Alliances
• By 1914 all the major
powers were linked by
a system of alliances.
• The alliances made it
more likely that a war
would start.
• Once started, the
alliances made it more
likely to spread.
Pan-Slavism in
the Balkans
1914
“Powder Keg”
of Europe
The Balkans: The Restless Region
- Ottoman Empire declining
- Nationalism = powerful force in the
Balkans
- Austria-Hungary takes over struggling
nations and vows to crush any efforts to
undermine authority
- Serbia – supported by Russia; wants to
break free from Austria-Hungary
Significant Individuals 1.
“Germany must have
• Kaiser Wilhelm II
its place in the sun”
• Built up German army and “The world belongs to
the strong.”
navy
• Aggressive foreign policy
• Determined to make
Germany a top nation.
• Distrusted by other
powers
Significant Individuals 2
• Count Berchtold
• Austrian Prime
Minister.
• During the July
Crisis, decided on a
very tough
ultimatum for
Serbia
“Were the Serbs to
agree to all the
demands, this would
not be to my liking”
Significant Individuals 3
• Bethmann Hollweg
• German Prime
Minister
• Gave very strong
support to Austria
during the July crisis
while Kaiser was
cruising on his yacht
“The Austrian demands
are moderate. Any
interference by Britain,
France and Russia would
be followed by
incalculable
consequences”
The Crisis 1.
 28 June 1914
 Heir to Austrian
throne Franz
Ferdinand visits
Sarajevo.
 Capital of Bosnia,
recently grabbed by
Austria.
 Hotbed of Slav
nationalism
Seal of the
Black Hand
group
The Crisis 2.
 “Black Hand” terrorists
attack the Arch Duke
 Bomb attempt fails in
morning
 Gavrilo Princip shoots
Archduke and wife in
the afternoon.
 Austrians blame Serbia
for supporting
terrorists.
The Crisis 3.
 Austrians, supported by
Germany, send Serbia a tough
ultimatum.
 Serbia agrees to all but two
terms of the ultimatum.
 Russia mobilises her troops to
support Serbia
 Germany demands that Russia
stands her armies down.
 Germany declares war on
Russia
“Demands must be
put to Serbia that
would be wholly
impossible for them
to accept …”
Why did Britain get involved?
• Britain had Ententes
with France and
Russia.
• Only “friendly
agreements” but
French and Russians
given impression
Britain would fight.
• The Schlieffen Plan
Sir Edward Grey
British Foreign Secretary
… “There’s some devilry
going on in Berlin”
The Schlieffen Plan
 Germany’s military
plan to defeat France
and Russia.
 “Knock out blow”
aimed at France first.
 Avoid French defences
by invasion of
Belgium.
 Germans thought
Britain would not
intervene.
Britain’s Reaction
 1838- UK had signed a
Treaty to protect Belgium.
 Britain also scared of
Germany controlling
Channel ports.
 Did not want Germany to
defeat France and
dominate Europe. Britain
next?
 UK issued ultimatum to
Germany to withdraw
troops from Belgium. War
declared August 4 1914
The Great War 1914-1918
• Questions to ask:
If war seemed “inconceivable”
why did it happen?
How was this a “world war”?
• The Textbook list of
Primary Causes:
Imperialism (colonialism),
Nationalism, Militarism
and Alliances.
“A Place in the Sun”
“Splendid Isolation”
Naval Race
Diplomacy 1900-1914
• Confusing Array of
Alliances
• Distrust: Boer War, RussoJapanese War, Africa,
Chinese concessions,
colonial disputes
• Moroccan Crisis (1905 &
1911)
• Bosnian Crisis (1908-09)
• Trouble in the Balkans
(1912-1913)
The Great War 1914-1918
• Setting the Stage
I. Crisis in the
Balkans
II. The Spark
A. Black Hand &
Assassination
(6/28/1914)
Franz Ferdinand
The Great War 1914-1918
• The Spark (continued)
Inquiry: How could an
assassination set off a
world war?
B. German “Blank Check”
C. Russian Mobilization
D. “Saber Rattling”
The Great War 1914-1918
• The Players:
Central Powers = Germany,
Austria-Hungary,
Bulgaria, Ottoman Empire
Allied Powers = Great
Britain & Commonwealth,
France, Russia, Belgium,
Serbia, Japan, Italy
(1915), USA (1917)
The Great War 1914-1918
III. The Armed Stalemate
Peter Browning & The Changing
Nature of Warfare. Shift from
Political Warfare to Position
Warfare.
A. The Schlieffen Plan and its
significance. 8/3/1914:
Belgium’s neutrality is violated
B. The War on Land and the
Western Front
War in the Trenches, Battle of
Verdun, Battle of the Somme.
“The lamps are going out all over Europe;
we shall not see them lit again in our lifetime.”
Sir Edward Grey (Aug. 4, 1914)
The Great War 1914-1918
B. The War at Sea
Naval blockade, Submarine warfare, the
Lusitania
C. Diplomatic Maneuvers
Italy, Zimmermann Telegraph, Asia,
German Expansionism
D. Russia & Eastern Front
Russian Revolution, Provisional
Government, The Treaty of BrestLitovsk
E. U.S. Enters the War
W. Wilson: “Peace without victory.” and
“To make the world safe for democracy” (?)
F. The World at War: Africa & Asia
G. Germany’s decline
H. Armistice
Did the Central Powers surrender?
Questions Historians ask:
• Schlieffen Plan: Was the Schlieffen Plan of the German General Staff
a sound war strategy?
• Yes. The various directives that made up the German war plan indicate
a high level of flexibility and a willingness to respond to events.
(Robert T. Foley)
• No. The Schlieffen Plan was predicated on an inexorable progression
to an all-or-nothing victory. (Antulio Echevarria)
• No. The Schlieffen Plan seriously underestimated the capabilities of
enemy forces and did not take into account their tenacity and rapid
deployment. (John Wheatley)
• Belgian Neutrality: Was the violation of Belgian neutrality in 1914
the reason for Great Britain’s declaration of war on Germany?
• Yes. The international treaty of 1839 had formally acknowledged that
Belgian neutrality was an important element in European stability and
British strategic interests. (Paul Du Quenoy)
• No. The British had already determined to declare war once Germany
had mobilized its military forces. (John Wheatley)
Historiography of WWI
• The Fisher Thesis
German documents prove expansionist aims. War used to
contain domestic unrest.
• Barbara Tuchman: The Guns of August (1962)
Historical narrative of August, 1914
• G. Lowes Dickinson: International Anarchy (1926)
Alliance system blamed for the war
• Sidney Fey: The Origins of the World War (1928)
Blames Russia & A-H
• Vladimir Lenin
Inevitable outcome of capitalism is war
• Nye Committee (1934-6) for U.S. involvement
Peace of Paris 1919
• Five Treaties:
Austria = Treaty of St. Germaine
Hungary = Treaty of Trianon
Bulgaria = Treaty of Neuilly
Turkey = Treaty of Sevres
Germany = Treaty of Versailles
• Big Four
France (Clemenceau), G.B. (George),
U.S. (Wilson), Italy (Orlando).
32 countries total with only 8 meetings
Germany & Russia not invited!
Treaty of Versailles 1919
• Wilson’s Fourteen Points
-
-
Germany’s armistice hinged on
the provisions of the Fourteen
Points. New democratic
Germany hoped to be treated as
an equal.
End to secret treaties and secret
diplomacy; freedom of the seas;
removal of barriers in
international trade; evacuation
of occupied territories; selfdetermination of nationalities;
redraw the map of Europe;
League of Nations.
Wilson’s 14 Points
-
-
-
Wilson hoped to revive the
idealism of 19th century Europe
with American Democracy = a
new era
Controversy: France demanded
reparations, UK vetoed
“freedom of the seas”. League
of Nations covenant debated:
U.S. & religious freedom, Japan
& racial discrimination.
U.S. senate never ratifies the
League due to Article 10
(protection of territorial
independence of all members).
Senate = Republican Party,
election year (1920)
Treaty of Versailles 1919
•
France:
Number one concern = security from
Germany aggression
Revenge for Franco-Prussian War?
1.
Anglo-French-American
Guarantee Treaty (protection
against Germany).
2.
Alsace-Lorraine returned to
France (lost in F-P War).
3.
German military banned from
Rhineland + Allied occupation.
France controls Saar coal mines
in Rhineland for 15 years.
France: Punish Germany
4. Disarm Germany. How and in
what way?
5. War Reparations. Due in part to
emotions, reparations paid to
Germany for F-P War, and
debt owed to U.S.
Great Britain: wanted a peaceful
united Germany to stop
Bolshevism and to become a
strong market for British
goods.
Treaty was a compromise between
the two nations
Treaty of Versailles 1919
•
1.
2.
3.
Germany and
Disarmament
Rhineland demilitarized
Military demobilized. No
air force allowed.
Limited to 7 divisions of
infantry, 3 of cavalry: total
can’t exceed 100,000 men
& 4,000 officers
Treaty of Versailles 1919
4.
No Navy. Germans
scuttled fleet at Scapa
Flow. No submarines
allowed. Merchant Marine
allowed providing it does
not compete with allied
interests.
5. Germany assumes “War
Guilt Clause”
6. “Diktat” = Germany not
consulted on matter
Was this done in the spirit of
idealism to end armed
conflict?
How would Germany defend
itself from any aggression?
Treaty of Versailles 1919
•
The Map of Europe
1.
Danzig Corridor – created a passage to the sea for Poland.
Danzig a free city, mainly German in ethnicity. East Prussia
separated from Germany.
Russia loses Finland, Poland, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
Each become “new” nations. Cordon Sanitaire created to
contain Bolshevism.
Austria-Hungary carved up. Creation of Yugoslavia &
Czechoslovakia. Empire in decline, separated from
Germany.
Italy makes small gains from Treaty of London.
2.
3.
4.
Treaty of Versailles 1919
•
The World Map
1.
Germany lost all colonies. The League gave mandates to powers for
administration.
African Colonies: mainly to France, GB. Belgian Congo enlarged,
S. Africa gains land.
Japan gained German Pacific Islands, concessions in China.
Australia & New Zealand gain Pacific islands.
China sought to abolish special concessions and extraterritorial
rights of Europeans. They lost, walked out of the conference.
Italy gains nothing from colonies.
New nation of Turkey emerges from Ottoman Empire. Land
restricted, area carved up into new nations 1920 & 1923.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The Mandates
Colonies and territories not yet able
to “stand by themselves under
the strenuous conditions of the
modern world” are governed by
(mainly) GB and France
Middle East, Pacific, Africa
- Considered paternalistic and
condescending
- Nations had to submit yearly
reports to the League. Unrest
meant a League committee.
- Self-determination was
established for a future date of
independence.
Mandates in
Africa and Asia
Outcomes of the Peace of Paris
• Germany refused to sign.
Threat of hostilities to
commence by allies. Germany
signs with a delegation of two
people. Germany humiliated.
• New nations affirmed by “selfdetermination”. Actually, they
declared themselves before
Paris. Trouble with minority
groups caught in borders.
• Many of the terms were too
harsh or too lenient. They were
later amended after emotions
and rationality returned.
Outcomes of the Peace of Paris
• United States gets out of
European affairs. Isolation.
• “Ancient institutions of
monarchy and aristocratic
feudalism” are gone (PalmerColton, 731)
• League of Nations emerges as
new step toward democracy.
• Great Britain and France
emerge as the status quo.
• Margaret McMillian (Peace of
Paris 1919: Six Months That
Changed the World): The
peacemakers worked with the
best solutions given the time.
Enforcement was left for a new
generation (who failed).
Outcome of the other Treaties
• Treaty of St. Germaine: Austria made into a small
state of 8 million. New states made:
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. No alliances
allowed with Germany.
• Treaty of Trianon: Hungary lost 2/3 of land to
Czechoslovakia, Romania & Yugoslavia.
• Treaty of Nevilly: Bulgaria lost land to Greece and
Serbia.
• Treaty of Sevres: The harshest treaty; Turkey loses
to the MANDATES; ethnic groups pulled out; GB
and France control the Middle East.
Questions for Versailles
• ‘The Versailles Treaty was criticized by both winners and
losers.’ How justified was this criticism?
• How would you evaluate the success of the Paris Peace treaties
in resolving armed conflict as a means to settle disputes and in
restoring peace and normality?
• What problems do you believe will emerge in Europe from the
outcomes of the Paris Peace Treaties for both the victorious
and defeated nations?
• How far do you agree with the view that Versailles was a brave
attempt to deal with difficult, perhaps impossible problems?
Impact of the Great War
• Acceleration of Government
Intervention
Nationalism & Propaganda bound
together
Economic Control (due to war
mobilization) Laissez Faire
Capitalism changes
U.S. and Japan begin to control
world trade
New political structures =
Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia
(ethnic enclaves), Soviet Union
(economic coalition)
Self-Determination?
The German Question
Impact of the Great War
• Disruption of Rationality
& Liberalism
Enter the “Age of
Uncertainty”:
Sciences = Quantum Physics
Art & Music = Cubism,
Surrealism,
Expressionism, Dadaism
• Human Cost
“The Lost Generation”
Miro’s Birth of the World (1925)
Impact of the Great War
• Economic
America assumes banking role
Inflation ravages Germany; Middle
Class declines
Popular speculation in markets
• Societal Norms
Women’s Suffrage Movement
Backlash: Church, family, children
U.S.: Temperance & Prohibition
• New Mass Culture
Film, Radio, Newspapers
Advertisement Industry
Leisure Time
Max Ernst: Celebes (1921)
Intellectual Thought to War
• The Short War Illusion
Main reason for intellectual acceptance
of the the war. Minority against
war labeled as “pacifists”
• Meliorist Myth
Nations can no longer remain neutral
• Irrational Thought
Freud and Nietzsche gain acceptance
unlike pre-war era.
• Versus Habit
Freud, Nietzsche,
Kafka, Hesse,
Heidegger
Polarization of conflict increases:
“Us against Them”
Intellectual Thought to War
• Humanism & Positivism
Destroyed
Rodchenko,
Composition with Circles
(1920)
War challenged the belief of progress
to ambiguity & uncertainty
Literary examples:
• Oswald Spengler, The Decline of
the West (1918-22)
• Franz Kafka, The Trial (1925)
• Aldous Huxley, Brave New World
(1932)
• Sigmund Freud, Civilization and its
Discontents
Intellectual Thought to War
• Moods of the time:
angst & cultural
despair
End of the Modern
Period? Beginning
of the Postmodern
Period?
Art from the Great War
Marcel Duchamp
Nude Descending Staircase
Salvador Dali
The Persistence of Memory
Marc Chagall
The Woman and the Roses
Joan Miro
Chiffres et Constellation
Wassily Kandinsky
Composition VII
Egon Schiele
Agony
[1912]
Gustav Klimt
Death and Life
[1916]