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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Cranial Nerves
• Brief Overview of Cranial Nerves
• Olfactory (I) Nerve
• Optic (II) Nerve
• Oculomotor (III) Nerve
• Trochlear (IV) Nerve
• Trigeminal (V) Nerve
• Abducens (VI) Nerve
• Facial (VII) Nerve
• Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve
• Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve
• Vagus (X) Nerve
• Accessory (XI) Nerve
• Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Brief Overview of Cranial Nerves
• The cranial nerves serve functions such as smell, sight, eye movement,
movement, and feeling in the face. The cranial nerves also control balance,
hearing, and swallowing.
• The twelve cranial nerves, in order from I to XII are: olfactory nerve, optic nerve,
oculomotor nerve, trochlear nerve, trigeminal nerve, abducens nerve, facial nerve,
vestibulocochlear nerve, glossopharengeal nerve, vagus nerve, spinal accessory
nerve, and hypoglossal nerve.
• The vagus nerve (X) has many branches, and is responsible for tasks including
heart rate, gastrointestinal peristalsis, sweating, and muscle movements in the
mouth, including speech and keeping the larynx open for breathing.
The Cranial Nerves
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Olfactory (I) Nerve
• The olfactory nerves consist of a collection of many sensory nerve fibers that
extend from the olfactory epithelium to the olfactory bulb.
• Olfactory receptors in the olfactory mucosa in the nasal cavity receive information
about smells which travel to the brain through the cranial nerve which extend from
the olfactory epithelium to the olfactory bulb.
• Olfactory receptor neurons continue to be born throughout life and extend new
axons to the olfactory bulb.
Human brain showing cranial nerves
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Optic (II) Nerve
• The optic nerve is considered part of the central nervous system. The myelin on
the optic nerve is produced by oligodendrocytes rather than Schwann cells and it
is encased in the meningeal layers instead of the standard endoneurium,
perineurium, and epineurium of the peripheral nervous system.
• The optic nerve travels through the optic canal, partially decussates in the optic
chiasm, and terminates in the lateral geniculate nucleus where information is
transmitted to the visual cortex.
• Axons responsible for reflexive eye movements terminate instead in the pretectal
nucleus.
Human brain showing cranial nerves.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Oculomotor (III) Nerve
• The oculomotor nerve is the third paired cranial nerve.
• The oculomotor nerve contains two nuclei, including the Edinger-Westphal
nucleus, which supplies parasympathetic nerve fibers to the eye to control pupil
constriction and accommodation.
• The oculomotor nerve originates at the superior colliculus and enters through the
superior orbital fissure to control the levator palpabrae superioris muscles, which
hold the eyelids open.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Trochlear (IV) Nerve
• The trochlear nerve innervates the superior oblique muscle of the eye.
• The trochlear nerve contains the smallest number of axons of all the cranial
nerves and has the greatest intracranial length.
• The two major clinical syndromes that can arise from damage to the trochlear
nerve are vertical and torsional diplopia.
The trochlear nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Trigeminal (V) Nerve
• The sensory function of the trigeminal nerve is to provide the tactile, motion,
position, and pain sensations of the face and mouth. The motor function activates
the muscles of the jaw, mouth, and inner ear.
• The trigeminal nerve has three major branches on each side, the opthalmic nerve,
maxillary nerve, and mandibular nerve, which converge on the trigeminal
ganglion.
• The trigeminal ganglion is analogous to the dorsal root ganglia of the spinal cord,
which contain the cell bodies of incoming sensory fibers from the rest of the body.
The trigeminal nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Abducens (VI) Nerve
• The abducens nerve exits the brainstem at the junction of the pons and the
medulla and runs upward to reach the eye, traveling between the dura and the
skull.
• The long course of the abducens nerve between the brainstem and the eye
makes it vulnerable to injury at many levels.
• In most mammals besides humans, it also innervates the musculus retractor
bulbi, which can retract the eye for protection.
The Abducens Nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Facial (VII) Nerve
• The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) is responsible for the muscles that determine
facial expression as well as the sensation of taste in the front of the tongue and
oral cavity.
• The facial nerve's motor component begins in the facial nerve nucleus in the pons
and the sensory component begins in the nervus intermedius. The nerve then
runs through the facial canal, passes through the parotid gland, and divides into
five branches.
• Voluntary facial movements, such as wrinkling the brow, showing teeth, frowning,
closing the eyes tightly (inability to do so is called lagophthalmos), pursing the
lips, and puffing out the cheeks, all test the facial nerve.
Bell's Palsy
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Nerve
• The vestibulocochlear nerve comprises the cochlear nerve which transmits
hearing information and the vestibular nerve which transmits balance information.
• The cochlear nerve travels away from the cochlea of the inner ear where it starts
as the spiral ganglia.
• The vestibular nerve travels from the vestibular system of the inner ear.
The Vestibulochoclear Nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Glossopharyngeal (IX) Nerve
• The glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX) is responsible for swallowng and
gagging, along with other functions.
• The glossopharyngeal nerve receives input from general and special sensory
fibers in the back of the throat.
• The glossopharyngeal nerve has five components: branchial motor, visceral
motor, visceral sensory, general sensory, and special sensory components.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Vagus (X) Nerve
• The vagus nerve (cranial nerve X) sends information about the body's organs to
the brain and carries some motor information back to the organs.
• The vagus nerve has axons which originate from or enter the dorsal nucleus of
the vagus nerve, the nucleus ambiguus, and the solitary nucleus in the medulla.
• The vagus nerve is responsible for heart rate, gastrointestinal peristalsis,
sweating, to name a few.
The glossopharyngeal nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Accessory (XI) Nerve
• Cranial nerve XI is responsible for tilting and rotating the head, elevating the
shoulders, and adducting the scapula.
• Most of the fibers of the accessory nerve originate in neurons situated in the
upper spinal cord. The fibers that make up the accessory nerve enter the skull
through the foramen magnum and proceed to exit the jugular foramen with cranial
nerves IX and X.
• Due to its unusual course, the accessory nerve is the only nerve that enters and
exits the skull.
The accessory nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) > Cranial Nerves
Hypoglossal (XII) Nerve
• It controls tongue movements of speech, food manipulation, and swallowing.
• While the hypoglossal nerve controls the tongue's involuntary activities of
swallowing to clear the mouth of saliva, most of the functions it controls are
voluntary, meaning that the execution of these activities requires conscious
thought.
• Proper function of the hypoglossal nerve is important for executing tongue
movements associated with speech. Many languages require specific uses of the
nerve to create unique speech sounds, which may contribute to the difficulties
some adults encounter when learning a new language.
The Hypoglossal Nerve
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Appendix
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Key terms
• abducens nerve A nerve that controls the lateral rectus muscle in the eye.
• accessory nerve The 11th cranial nerves of higher vertebrates, controlling the pharynx and the muscles of the upper chest and
shoulders.
• Bell's Palsy Bell's palsy is a form of facial paralysis resulting from a dysfunction of the cranial nerve VII (the facial nerve) that
results in the inability to control facial muscles on the affected side.
• cerebral aqueduct The channel in the brain which connects the third ventricle to the fourth ventricle. Also called the aqueduct of
sylvius. It is surrounded by the periaqueductal gray.
• cochlear nerve The cochlear nerve is a sensory nerve which conducts information about the environment to the brain, in this
case acoustic energy impinging on the tympanic membrane (sound waves reaching the ear drum). The cochlear nerve arises
from within the cochlea and extends to the brainstem, where its fibers make contact with the cochlear nucleus, the next stage of
neural processing in the auditory system.
• contralateral On the opposite side of the body.
• dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve The dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve (or posterior motor nucleus of vagus) is a cranial
nerve nucleus for the vagus nerve in the medulla that lies under the floor of the fourth ventricle. It mostly serves
parasympathetic vagal functions in the gastrointestinal tract, lungs, and other thoracic and abdominal vagal innervations.
• facial nerve The seventh (VII) of 12 paired cranial nerves.
• foramen An opening, an orifice, or a short passage.
• hypoglossal nerve The hypoglossal nerve is the twelfth cranial nerve (XII), leading to the tongue.
• lateral rectus muscle The lateral rectus muscle is a muscle in the orbit. It is one of six extraocular muscles that control the
movements of the eye (abduction in this case) and the only muscle innervated by the abducens nerve, cranial nerve VI,
functioning to bring the pupil away from the midline of the body.
• levator palpebrae superioris A muscle elevating the upper eyelid.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• medulla The lower half of the brainstem that contains the cardiac, respiratory, vomiting, and vasomotor centers and deals with
autonomic, involuntary functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
• nervus intermedius The nervus intermedius, or intermediate nerve, is the part of the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) located
between the motor component of the facial nerve and the vestibulocochlear nerve (cranial nerve VIII). It contains the sensory
and parasympathetic fibers of the facial nerve.
• nucleus ambiguus The nucleus ambiguus (literally "ambiguous nucleus") is a region of histologically disparate cells located just
dorsal (posterior) to the inferior olivary nucleus in the lateral portion of the upper (rostral) medulla. It receives upper motor
neuron innervation directly via the corticobulbar tract.
• olfactory mucosa The olfactory mucosa is located in the upper region of the nasal cavity and is made up of the olfactory
epithelium and the underlying lamina propria, connective tissue containing fibroblasts, blood vessels, Bowman's glands, and
bundles of fine axons from the olfactory neurons.
• olfactory receptors Olfactory receptors expressed in the cell membranes of olfactory receptor neurons are responsible for the
detection of odor molecules. Activated olfactory receptors are the initial player in a signal transduction cascade which ultimately
produces a nerve impulse which is transmitted to the brain. The olfactory receptors form a multigene family consisting of over
900 genes in humans and 1,500 genes in mice.
• optic nerve Either of a pair of nerves that carry visual information from the retina to the brain.
• peripheral nervous system consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord.
• plexus A network or interwoven mass, especially of nerves, blood vessels, or lymphatic vessels.
• retina The thin layer of cells at the back of the eyeball where light is converted into neural signals sent to the brain.
• solitary nucleus The solitary tract and nucleus are structures in the brainstem that carry and receive visceral sensation and
taste from the facial (VII), glossopharyngeal (IX) and vagus (X) cranial nerves.
• superior orbital fissure The superior orbital fissure is a foramen in the skull, although strictly it is more of a cleft, lying between
the lesser and greater wings of the sphenoid bone.
• trapezius A large vertebrate skeletal muscle divided into an ascending, descending, and transverse portion, attaching the neck
and central spine to the outer extremity of the scapula; it functions in scapular elevation, adduction, and depression.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• trigeminal ganglion The trigeminal ganglion (or Gasserian ganglion, or semilunar ganglion, or Gasser's ganglion) is a sensory
ganglion of the trigeminal nerve (CN V) that occupies a cavity (Meckel's cave) in the dura mater, covering the trigeminal
impression near the apex of the petrous part of the temporal bone.
• trigeminal nerve The nerve responsible for sensation and motor function in the face and mouth.
• vestibular nerve The vestibular nerve is one of the two branches of the Vestibulocochlear nerve (the cochlear nerve being the
other). It goes to the semicircular canals via the vestibular ganglion and receives positional information.
• vestibulocochlear nerve The vestibulocochlear nerve (auditory vestibular nerve) is the eighth of twelve cranial nerves, and is
responsible for transmitting sound and equilibrium (balance) information from the inner ear to the brain.
• visual cortex The visual cortex of the brain is the part of the cerebral cortex responsible for processing visual information. It is
located in the occipital lobe, in the back of the brain.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Human brain showing cranial nerves.
The 12 cranial nerves are illustrated.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The glossopharyngeal nerve
The innervation of the vagus nerve is shown in yellow.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Areas of the Face Innervated by the Trigeminal Nerve
The ophthalmic nerve branch (V1) innervates the bright red area, the maxillary nerve branch (V2) innervates the light red area, and the mandibular nerve
branch (V3) innervates the yellow area.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The Abducens Nerve
The location of the abducens nerve as it innervates the lateral rectus muscle is shown in yellow.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Human brain showing cranial nerves
The 12 cranial nerves are illustrated.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The trigeminal nerve
The trigeminal nerve is shown in yellow.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The Vestibulochoclear Nerve
The innervation of the vestibulocochlear nerve is illustrated in yellow.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Bell's Palsy
A person attempting to show his teeth and raise his eyebrows with Bell's palsy on his right side (left side of the image).
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The accessory nerve
Upon exiting the skull via the jugular foramen, the spinal accessory nerve pierces the sternocleidomastoid muscle before terminating on the trapezius
muscle.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The Cranial Nerves
The origins of the cranial nerves within the brain.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The facial nerve
Illustration of the facial nerve and its branches.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The Hypoglossal Nerve
The hypoglossal nerve, cervical plexus, and their branches.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The trochlear nerve
The trocheal nerve and where it innervates.
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in the human body?
A) 6
B) 2
C) 15
D) 12
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
How many pairs of cranial nerves are there in the human body?
A) 6
B) 2
C) 15
D) 12
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What sensory information does the cranial nerve I, the olfactory
nerve, carry to the brain?
A) Sense of sight
B) Sense of taste
C) Sense of smell
D) Sense of touch
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What sensory information does the cranial nerve I, the olfactory
nerve, carry to the brain?
A) Sense of sight
B) Sense of taste
C) Sense of smell
D) Sense of touch
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is unique about cranial nerve II (optic nerve) as compared to
the other cranial nerves?
A) It is part of the peripheral nervous system
B) It is the shortest cranial nerve
C) It is the longest cranial nerve
D) It is part of the central nervous system
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is unique about cranial nerve II (optic nerve) as compared to
the other cranial nerves?
A) It is part of the peripheral nervous system
B) It is the shortest cranial nerve
C) It is the longest cranial nerve
D) It is part of the central nervous system
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is/are the main function(s) of the oculomotor nerve?
A) Controls most eye movements
B) Controls pupil constriction
C) All functions listed here
D) Maintains opened eyelids
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is/are the main function(s) of the oculomotor nerve?
A) Controls most eye movements
B) Controls pupil constriction
C) All functions listed here
D) Maintains opened eyelids
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the name of the muscle that the trochlear nerve
innervates in humans?
A) Inferior oblique muscle of the eye
B) Superior rectus muscle of the eye
C) Inferior rectus muscle of the eye
D) Superior oblique muscle of the eye
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the name of the muscle that the trochlear nerve
innervates in humans?
A) Inferior oblique muscle of the eye
B) Superior rectus muscle of the eye
C) Inferior rectus muscle of the eye
D) Superior oblique muscle of the eye
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Which of the following IS NOT one of the three major branches of
the trigeminal nerve?
A) The ophthalmic nerve
B) The olfactory nerve
C) The maxillary nerve
D) The mandibular nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Which of the following IS NOT one of the three major branches of
the trigeminal nerve?
A) The ophthalmic nerve
B) The olfactory nerve
C) The maxillary nerve
D) The mandibular nerve
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the name of the muscle innervated by the abducens
nerve in humans?
A) The medial rectus muscle of the eye
B) The superior rectus muscle of the eye
C) The inferior rectus muscle of the eye
D) The lateral rectus muscle of the eye
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
What is the name of the muscle innervated by the abducens
nerve in humans?
A) The medial rectus muscle of the eye
B) The superior rectus muscle of the eye
C) The inferior rectus muscle of the eye
D) The lateral rectus muscle of the eye
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
From how much of the tongue does the facial nerve convey taste
sensations to the brain?
A) 1/3 of the tongue
B) 2/3 of the tongue
C) all of the tongue
D) 1/2 of the tongue
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
From how much of the tongue does the facial nerve convey taste
sensations to the brain?
A) 1/3 of the tongue
B) 2/3 of the tongue
C) all of the tongue
D) 1/2 of the tongue
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The vestibulocochlear nerve conveys sensory information from
which receptor type that is common to the cochlea and the
vestibular organs?
A) Mechanoreceptors
B) Sensory hair cells
C) Pressure receptors
D) No common type
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The vestibulocochlear nerve conveys sensory information from
which receptor type that is common to the cochlea and the
vestibular organs?
A) Mechanoreceptors
B) Sensory hair cells
C) Pressure receptors
D) No common type
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
How much of the tongue does the glossopharyngeal nerve
innervate?
A) Posterior 1/3 of the tongue
B) Posterior 2/3 of the tongue
C) Anterior 1/3 of the tongue
D) Anterior 2/3 of the tongue
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
How much of the tongue does the glossopharyngeal nerve
innervate?
A) Posterior 1/3 of the tongue
B) Posterior 2/3 of the tongue
C) Anterior 1/3 of the tongue
D) Anterior 2/3 of the tongue
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Which of the following functions of the vagus nerve is FALSE?
A) 80-90% of the nerve fibers are sensory nerves
B) Supplies parasympathetic drive to most organs
C) Controls muscle movements in the mouth for chewing
D) Controls speech muscles of the larynx in the neck
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Which of the following functions of the vagus nerve is FALSE?
A) 80-90% of the nerve fibers are sensory nerves
B) Supplies parasympathetic drive to most organs
C) Controls muscle movements in the mouth for chewing
D) Controls speech muscles of the larynx in the neck
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
To which muscle(s) does the accessory nerve provide motor
innervation?
A) The sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles of the neck
B) The sternocleidomastoid muscle of the neck
C) All the muscles of the neck
D) All the muscles of the shoulder
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
To which muscle(s) does the accessory nerve provide motor
innervation?
A) The sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles of the neck
B) The sternocleidomastoid muscle of the neck
C) All the muscles of the neck
D) All the muscles of the shoulder
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Which of the following type(s) of tongue movements involve(s) the
hypoglossal nerve?
A) Voluntary and involuntary
B) Voluntary only
C) Involuntary only
D) No tongue control
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Which of the following type(s) of tongue movements involve(s) the
hypoglossal nerve?
A) Voluntary and involuntary
B) Voluntary only
C) Involuntary only
D) No tongue control
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
Attribution
• Wikibooks. "Human Physiology/The Nervous System." CC BY-SA 3.0
https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Human_Physiology/The_Nervous_System#The_Peripheral_Nervous_System
• Wikipedia. "peripheral nervous system." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/peripheral%20nervous%20system
• Wikipedia. "Abducent nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abducent_nerve
• Wiktionary. "abducens nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/abducens+nerve
• Wikipedia. "lateral rectus muscle." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/lateral%20rectus%20muscle
• Wikipedia. "Vagus nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vagus_nerve
• Wikipedia. "dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/dorsal%20nucleus%20of%20the%20vagus%20nerve
• Wikipedia. "solitary nucleus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/solitary%20nucleus
• Boundless Learning. "Boundless." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://www.boundless.com//physiology/definition/nucleus-ambiguus
• Wikipedia. "Olfactory nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory_nerve
• Wikipedia. "olfactory receptors." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/olfactory%20receptors
• Wikipedia. "olfactory mucosa." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/olfactory%20mucosa
• Wiktionary. "trigeminal nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trigeminal+nerve
• Wikipedia. "Trigeminal nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve
• Wikipedia. "trigeminal ganglion." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/trigeminal%20ganglion
• Wikipedia. "Oculomotor nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oculomotor_nerve
• Wiktionary. "plexus." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/plexus
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Wiktionary. "levator palpebrae superioris." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/levator+palpebrae+superioris
• Wikipedia. "superior orbital fissure." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/superior%20orbital%20fissure
• Wikipedia. "Glossopharyngeal nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossopharyngeal_nerve
• Wikipedia. "medulla." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/medulla
• Wikipedia. "Hypoglossal nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoglossal_nerve
• Wikipedia. "hypoglossal nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/hypoglossal%20nerve
• Wikipedia. "Vestibulocochlear nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibulocochlear_nerve
• Wikipedia. "cochlear nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/cochlear%20nerve
• Wikipedia. "vestibular nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vestibular%20nerve
• Wikipedia. "vestibulocochlear nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/vestibulocochlear%20nerve
• Wikipedia. "Optic nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optic_nerve
• Wiktionary. "optic nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/optic+nerve
• Wiktionary. "retina." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/retina
• Wikipedia. "visual cortex." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/visual%20cortex
• Wikipedia. "Accessory nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_nerve
• Wikipedia. "Accessory nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_nerve
• Wikipedia. "Accessory nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accessory_nerve
• Wiktionary. "foramen." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/foramen
• Wiktionary. "trapezius." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trapezius
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The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Wiktionary. "accessory nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/accessory+nerve
• Wikipedia. "Facial nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_nerve
• Wikipedia. "Facial nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_nerve
• Wikipedia. "Bell's Palsy." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell's%20Palsy
• Wikipedia. "nervus intermedius." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/nervus%20intermedius
• Wiktionary. "facial nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/facial+nerve
• Wikipedia. "Trochlear nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochlear_nerve
• Wikipedia. "Trochlear nerve." CC BY-SA 3.0 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trochlear_nerve
• Wiktionary. "contralateral." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/contralateral
• Wiktionary. "cerebral aqueduct." CC BY-SA 3.0 http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cerebral+aqueduct
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