Chapter 7
Stratification:
Rich and Famous—or
Rags and Famine?
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of
SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The Importance of Stratification
Social stratification: individuals and
groups are layered or ranked in society
according to how many valued
resources they possess
An ongoing process of sorting people into
layers, legitimated by cultural beliefs that
justify inequality
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
The Importance of Stratification
The concept of stratification assumes that:
People are divided into ranked categories
Desired resources are unequally distributed
Each society determines how individuals are
ranked, depending on:
History
Geographic location
Level of development
Political philosophy
Decisions of those in power
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Micro-Level Stratification
Prestige and Influence
Property, power, and prestige are accorded to
individuals with:
Cultural capital: knowledge and access to important
information
Social capital: networks with others who have
influence
Individual qualities also influence cultural and
social capital
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Meso-Level Stratification
Access to Resources
Individual status is shaped by access to
resources and reinforced by the family through
socialization
Our treatment by educational, religious, political,
and other institutions often depends on our
status, and also reinforces it
Our experiences of life are shaped by our status
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Macro-Level Stratification
Macro-level influences on stratification:
Economic systems and resources within a
particular country
Position of that country within world systems
of economic stratification
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Micro-Level Theory
Symbolic Interaction
Individuals take up social positions through
socialization, in which they learn the appropriate
cultural capital
Cultural capital influences children’s school and
home environments
Social positions are represented by symbols
Conspicuous consumption: displaying goods in a way
that will be noticed and will earn the owner respect
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Meso- and Macro-Level Theories
Structural-Functional Theory
Stratification within societies is inevitable
The stratification system provides each
individual with a position in the social world
The stratification system motivates individuals
to carry out their roles
As a result, each individual contributes in some
way to the maintenance of society
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Structural-Functional Theory, cont.
The Davis and Moore Thesis
Some positions are more highly valued because
people feel they are very important
Rewards for these positions are high because society
must motivate talented individuals to undertake the
necessary but difficult preparation for them
Differential rewards for positions result in unequal
distribution of resources; stratification is inevitable
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Meso- and Macro-Level Theories
Conflict Theory
Stratification is the outcome of struggles for
dominance and scarce resources
Individuals and groups act in their own selfinterest, taking advantage of others
Conflict—between those trying to hold onto
existing advantages and those trying to gain
new advantages—is inevitable
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Conflict Theory, cont.
Karl Marx, an originator of conflict theory
Lived during a time of economic change
which prompted him to question
stratification
Described distribution of wealth in capitalist
societies as based on what people can take,
not what they need, want, or earn
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Marx’s Conflict Theory, cont.
Marx described two economic classes
The bourgeoisie, capitalists, or “haves”
The proletariat, working class, or “have nots”
Conflict arises from struggle between classes:
Capitalists control the means of production, i.e.
money, materials, factories, which they use to create
profits for themselves
Since members of the working class lack their own
means of production, they must work for capitalists
in order to earn a living
Therefore, capitalists can exploit workers in order to
maintain and enlarge their profits
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Marx’s Conflict Theory, cont.
Capitalists remain in control because:
They control the norms and values of society
They use their power to make inequality seem “fair”
and justified
This system will last until:
The working class develops class consciousness, or
shared awareness of the causes of their low status
• They may be aided in this by intellectuals
Based on class consciousness, the working class will
overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a classless
society in which wealth is shared
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Max Weber’s Conflict Theory
Max Weber, also a conflict theorist, critiqued
Marx’s sole focus on economic factors. His
stratification theory included power and
prestige, as well as property.
Recent conflict theorists argue that there are 5
social classes:
• Capitalists
• Managers
• Petty bourgeoisie
• Workers
• Underclass
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Meso- and Macro Level Theories
Evolutionary Theory of Stratification
To survive people must cooperate, but conflicts
occur when important decisions advantage one
group over another
Valued items are always in demand but short
supply; struggle over these scarce items is likely
Custom shapes the distribution of scarce
resources, but after basic societal needs are
met, power determines distribution of surplus
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Theories of Stratification
Evolutionary Theory of Stratification, cont.
Synthesis of functionalist and conflict theories:
Structural functionalism
• Talented individuals need to be motivated
Conflict theory
• Individuals will attempt to control as much
wealth, power, and prestige as possible, resulting
in potential conflict
• Exploitation contributes to creating inequality
Level of inequality depends on technology
Some inequality is useful, too much can be harmful
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Individual Social Status
The micro-level:
Individual Life Chances
Life chances: one’s opportunities, which depend
on achieved and ascribed statuses
Important factors affecting life chances:
Education
Health, social conditions, and life expectancy
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Individual Social Status
Individual Lifestyle
Lifestyle: one’s attitudes, values, beliefs, and
behavior patterns, which depend on
socialization into one’s culture and status
Factors affecting lifestyle:
Attitudes toward achievement
Family life and child rearing patterns
Religious membership
Political behavior
Status inconsistency
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social Mobility
The Micro-Meso Connection:
Social Mobility
Social mobility: the extent to which people
move up and down in the class system
Four issues dominate analysis of mobility:
Types of social mobility
Methods of measuring social mobility
Factors that affect social mobility
Whether there is a “land of opportunity”
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social Mobility
Types of Social Mobility
Intergenerational mobility: change in status
compared to parents’ status, usually resulting
from education and occupational attainment
Intragenerational mobility: change in status
within an individual’s life, whether up or down
Vertical mobility: movement up or down the
stratification hierarchy, sometimes including a
change in social class
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social Mobility
Measuring Social Mobility
Traditional method: compare the occupations
of fathers and sons or daughters
There is a high level of occupational inheritance
The higher the father’s occupation, the greater the
son’s chances of occupational success
There is considerable intergenerational movement
up and down the ladder
Sons are more likely to move up than down;
daughters are even more likely to move up
Men’s and women’s occupational attainment is
powerfully influenced by class origins
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social Mobility
Factors Affecting Individual Mobility
Micro-level factors
Family background, socialization, and education
Macro-level factors
National occupational structure & economic vitality
National population trends
(Dis)advantages linked to gender and ethnicity
Global markets and events
Many of these factors are interrelated
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social Mobility
Is there a “land of opportunity”?
Comparing mobility across cultures
It is difficult to identify opportunity-rich countries due
to the complex factors that influence mobility
Opportunities for upward mobility are changing
due to globalization
Manufacturing jobs are now in developing countries,
leaving less-educated US workers with fewer
opportunities
The US has high-tech jobs, providing opportunity for
those from small, educated families that value
individual achievement
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Stratification
Macro-level analysis:
Major Stratification Systems
Ascribed stratification systems: individuals’
positions in society are determined by
characteristics they are born with
Achieved stratification systems: individuals earn
their positions through ability and effort
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Stratification
Ascribed Status Systems
Caste systems: the caste one is born into
determines one’s occupation, potential marriage
partners, residence, group memberships, and
prestige level
An individual’s caste is recognized through clothing,
speech, family name, skin color, other characteristics
Individuals learn their caste through socialization
The most rigid ascribed status system; maintained by
norms, ideologies, and social control mechanisms
embedded in religious, political, and economic
institutions
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Stratification
Ascribed Status Systems
Estate systems: one is born into the nobility,
the political-military elites, or into the
peasantry, whose labor supports the elites
Peasants receive protection and enough food to
survive from the nobility
Peasants are tied to a noble’s land and are rarely
able to become independent land-owners
Ranks and rights are clearly spelled out
The system is bolstered by arranged marriages
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Stratification
Achieved Status Systems
Social class system: social class is defined by
property, power, and prestige; it is officially
achieved, but actually inherited in part
Property: income and assets
Power: ability to control or influence others
(Power Elite vs. Pluralism models)
Prestige: recognition, esteem, respect given those
whose occupation and lifestyle are socially valued
Class members share similar lifestyles, education,
culture, and interaction patterns
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Social Classes in the United States
Most people in the U.S.
identify as “middle
class,” but the middle
class is shrinking
The gap between the
richest 5% and poorest
40% has increased
since the 1970s
Middle class wages and
salaries have declined
since the 1980s
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty
Poverty Determinants and Social Policy
Absolute poverty: not having sufficient
resources to meet basic survival needs
Also no prestige, power, or accumulated wealth
Relative poverty: having an income below the
poverty line, and an inadequate standard of
living relative to others in the same country
Also poorer health, shorter life expectancy, greater
infant mortality than others in the same country
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty
Poverty Determinants and Social Policy
Feminization of poverty: trend in which single
females, often young and with children, make
up a growing proportion of those in poverty
Many poor women grew up in female-headed
families or suffered economically following divorce
Prevalent in and around major cities
Explained by
• Blaming the victim
• Conflict perspective: poor women comprise a reserve
group of cheap, easily exploited laborers
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty
Poverty Determinants and Social Policy
Social costs of poverty
The poor have lower physical and mental health,
are more alienated, have higher rates of addiction
Financial cost of addressing the needs of and
regulating the poor
Loss of talent and abilities that the poor could
contribute
Contradiction to cultural values of equality and
upward mobility
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty
Eliminating Poverty: Policy Considerations
Most welfare programs aim to eliminate poverty
by changing the factors that perpetuate it
Requires jobs, money, altering our social institutions
Aid Programs:
Women, Infants, & Children (WIC) program: nutrition
Head Start: early childhood education
Medicaid
Medicare
Food stamps
Workfare (TANF)
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Poverty
Eliminating Poverty: Policy Considerations
Workfare
Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF)
Replaced Aid to Families with Dependent Children
(AFDC), which was criticized as creating dependence
Requires individuals receiving assistance to work 2030 hours/week or attend training/education
Issues and questions
• Are there jobs available at a “living wage”?
• Voters want tax cuts, which reduce our ability to help
• Prisons take public funds that could be used to fight poverty
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.
Macro-Level Stratification
The National and Global Digital Divide
Digital divide: the gap between those with and without
access to information technology.
Results from differences in socioeconomic status, minority group
status, and urban versus rural residence
Individuals with insufficient computer and internet access
or skills face barriers to many professions and
opportunities
Public and private organizations are developing low-cost
technologies that may help level the digital playing field
© Pine Forge Press, an Imprint of SAGE Publications, Inc., 2011.