BEHAVIOURAL
ADAPTATIONS
Behaviour in Animals
Innate versus learned
behaviour
The study of animal behaviour is called
ethology
The focus of this section is to look at
the function of particular behaviour,
rather than the mechanisms underlying
a particular behaviour.
Innate Behaviour - definition
When a behaviour is essentially the same in all
members of a species, the behaviour is call
innate or inborn behaviour.
It is genetically controlled
List some innate animal behaviours
Learned Behaviour - definition
Learned behaviours are those that develop
or change as we are shown how to do
something. Copy, trial-and-error are some
of the ways animals learn.
When a behaviour is changed as a result of
experience, learning has occurred.
Learning enables an animal to adapt to
change.
Behaviour
Activity performed in response to stimulus
Learned Behaviours
Innate Behaviours
Behaviours that are essentially
the same in all members of a
species
Behaviours that develop
or change as a result of
experience
Conditioning – respond to
Rhythmic behaviours
stimulus that normally does
not elicit response
Eg. Eating, sleeping,
seasonal migration
Operant conditioning – animal
Communication behaviours
relates behaviour with reward or
punishment and repeats or avoids
behaviour
Reproductive behaviours
Habituation – cease to
Competitive behaviours
Dominance behaviours
Territoriality
respond to stimuli
Social interactions
Imprinting – association with
an object after exposure to it
very early in life
Observational – learns from
observing actions of others
Innate Behaviours
Rhythmic Behaviours
- Animals repeat behaviours at regular intervals
- Different species of animals may follow different
patterns of rhythmic behaviour
- Differences in rhythmic behaviours may be a
significant factor in the ability of a group of animals
to exploit the resources within the area in which they
live and avoid competition from other species.
- Regulated by both internal and external factors
- internal – biological clock
- external – light
Feeding Behaviour
Feeding may be:On an individual basis
On a group basis
Spider Webs
• Many innate behaviours in spiders involve
the use of silk – in feeding and in
reproduction
Spider webs vary in their design and
structure
Whales
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The species of whales are classified into
two major groups – Toothed and Baleen.
Differing structures result in differing
behaviours related to functions
Gulping and skimming techniques suit the
structures of the baleen whales (p346)
Bubble netting is used by the humpback
whale (p347)
Migration
• The movement of large numbers of animals
over long distances from one area to another
area, and their subsequent return to their
original home, is called migration.
• Animals usually migrate using the same
route each time.
• A diverse range of species migrate – birds,
fish, eels, insects and mammals
Migration
• Some animals may take years to complete
their migration cycle
• Winter and the disappearance of food –
migration. Very low temperatures can be
fatal to some species
• Migration is an important survival strategy
Bird Migration
• More than 1/3 of the world’s species of
birds migrate
Why do birds migrate?
• Birds need a constant supply of food
• Approach of winter, reduction in food
supply. Migrate to warmer climate for a
more abundant food supply
• Migratory behaviour enhances survival
How do birds know where to fly?
• Innate, young birds are born ‘knowing’ to
migrate
• Sun, stars, Earth’s magnetic field help
determine the direction of flight
• Magnetite has been found in the tissues of
some birds. Its presence is related to the
bird’s ability to navigate using the magnetic
field.
Communication Behaviours
• Communication in the animals is an innate
behaviour. Can be through:- touch, posture,
sound, visual display and chemical signals
• Communication behaviour is a response to a
stimulus
Communication Behaviours
• Important components of communication include:•
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Stimulus for the communication
Sender of a signal
Receiver to whom the signal is directed
The kind of signal sent
How the signal is sent
The behaviour of the receiver
The setting in which the communication occurs
How does the Bower bird communicate that he is a
good potential mate?
Communication Behaviours
Messages to trick a competitor
Eg alarm calls to trick a competitor (p 349)
Communication Behaviours
The language of bees
The dance to indicate the location of a food
source. Bees also use smell
Why is it important for survival for worker
bees to communicate to each regarding the
location of a food source.
Communication Behaviours
COMMUNICATION UNDER WATER
Sound is an important means of communication
underwater
Sound is transmitted through water for long
distances. Light can only penetrate very short
distances below the surfaces
The range of whale and dolphin noises include:
blips, clicks, groans, moans and snores, lasting
from a few seconds to several hours.
Communication Behaviours
Why do whales sing?
To locate and identify each other
During courtship
Communication Behaviours
Dolphins
Use various sounds to
communicate different
information
Use sounds for location
and navigation
Echolocation for
determining position
Navigation, hunting Clicks
Play-chase, pain
Squawk
Courtship, mating
Yelp
Threat
Buzz
Alarm, fright,
distress
Resting, predator
nearby
Squeaks,
cracks, pops
Silence
Communication Behaviours
CHEMICALS FOR COMMUNICATION
• Pheromones
• Used for identifying the location of food sources
(leaving a pheromone trail)
• Attract members of the opposite sex (eg female dogs
release a pheromone in the urine to notify males she is
ready for mating)
• Can act over long or short distances
• Very easy for insects and other animals to locate a mate,
even in sparsely populated areas.
Social and Territorial Interactions
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Social Interaction
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Involves two or more individuals.
May involve cooperation (mating, food source)
May involve aggression and conflict as
individuals or group to defend territory or select
a mate
Social and Territorial Interactions
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Reproductive behaviours
(discussed further in chapter 12)
Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
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Size of groups and reasons for which the animals group
varies
A group may be permanent or stay together until its
members are such that it splits in two
Being a member of a group is safer than being alone
Different kinds of groups are found in different species
of animals
Groups may be formed to make collecting food easier,
for protection, for shelter or for mating.
Whatever the reason, it increases the chances of
survival of members of the group and the species.
Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
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Castes
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Eg ants, bees, termites, some wasps
Each caste has a different structure and
performs a different function in the group
Social and Territorial Interactions
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GROUP ORGANISATION
Social Hierarchies
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That is a pecking order.
Fighting occurs until an animal ‘knows its place’ in a
group
The higher an animal is in the pecking order the greater
access to food and other aspects of life in the group
Stronger animals in the group will have offspring that
are more likely to be stronger members of the next
generation
Social and Territorial Interactions
GROUP ORGANISATION
• Leadership
– A complex social hierarchy
– Eg – Baboons with a dominant male and
other males in rank order behind
– Why must a dog owner be the leader of the
pack?
Social and Territorial Interactions
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GROUP ORGANISATION
Territorial Behaviour
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Eg The dreaded Magpie swoop!
Animals select a territory and defend it,
protecting a mating territory or food source.
Social and Territorial Interactions
COMPETITION
Animals may compete for nesting places,
positions in an hierarchy, etc
Group dynamics is important for survival
and reproduction in many species.
Social and Territorial Interactions
COOPERATION
Animals often cooperate
Many animals congregate in
groups. Wolves hunt in
packs in order to corner their
prey. A wolf hunting singly
would not be nearly as
successful a hunter, and so
we can call group hunting an
adaptation since it increases
the wolves’ chances of
survival.
Do Innate behaviours remain
constant?
Innate behaviours are genetically
determined and are similar in all
members of the species.
However, innate behaviour is not
necessarily fully developed at birth and
may be modified by learning.
This learning comes through trial-anderror and experience.
LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Some behaviours change as a result of
maturation of the body of an organism due to
hormonal and structural changes.
These should not be confused with learned
behaviours which are those that develop or
change as a result of experience
• Table from page 343 repeat slide
LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Conditioning
Eg food stimulus/response
Pavlov’s Dog experiment – the ringing of a bell prior to feeding a dog. Eventually
the dog salivates just at the ringing of the bell.
LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
• Pavlov’s experiment is known as Classical
Conditioning
• Operant Conditioning is trial-and-error
Operant Conditioning
• Organisms make responses that have
consequences
• The consequences serve to increase or decrease
the likelihood of making that response again
• The response can be associated with cues in the
environment
• We put coins in a machine to obtain food
• But we refrain when an Out of Order sign is placed
on the machine
Key Aspects of Operant
Conditioning
• In operant conditioning, the stimulus is a
cue, it does not elicit the response
• Operant responses are voluntary
• In operant conditioning, the response elicits
a reinforcing stimulus, whereas in classical
conditioning, the UCS elicits the reflexive
response
Key Terms of Operant
Conditioning
• Reinforcement is any procedure that
increases the response
• Punishment is any procedure that decreases
the response
• Types of reinforcers:
• Primary: satisfy a biological need
• Secondary: have learned value
LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Habituation
The ability to ‘get used to’ a repeated stimulus, such as a
noise, is called habituation.
Why is Habituation important for animals?
- Animals will respond to a noise if they think it has been
made by a predator.
- Habituation enable animals to distinguish the unimportant
noises and shapes from those that are important
- Habituation allows animals to ignore meaningless stimuli
and save energy for activities critical for survival.
LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Insight
Insight learning is related to the ability of an
animal to apply past experience to solving a
new problem without a trial-and-error period
Most highly developed in humans
Play forms an important part in developing
problem-solving skills for later use.
LEARNED BEHAVIOURS
Imprinting
The formation of an attachment to something
in the environment shortly after hatching or
birth is called imprinting
The learning that takes place during
imprinting is rapid and cannot be reversed
LEARNING FROM ANIMAL
BEHAVIOUR
If we understand the natural behaviour of animals,
we can also analyse and interpret any change in
behaviour.
A change in animal behaviour can sometimes
indicate a change in the environment