Where are we???
1. Intro to Geology
4. Earth’s Materials and minerals
3. Rock Cycle and Rock types
4. Structure of Earth
Earth’s Materials
& structure
10. Hydrologic Cycle
External
Part II8. Rock Weathering & Soils
processes
6. Mass wasting
External factors,
10. Streams Running water
Water resources
11. Groundwater
12 13. Glaciers Deserts & winds
14. Work of Ocean Shorelines
8. Geologic time
Part III 17. Rock deformation
Internal Processes
Part IV
2 . Plate Tectonics
16. Earthquakes, Tsunamis
17. Volcanoes Hazards
18. Hawaii Geology
Hawaiian Islands
19 Geothermal resources Geology, Volcanic
20. Maui, Molokai, Lanai,
Kahoolawe
Processes, Hazards,
21. Kauai
Geothermal Resources
22. Oahu
Volcanic eruptions are one type of phenomena that
have shaped the Earth over the past four billion years.
The products of the volcanic eruptions are creation of
more land and islands in the deep open sea. Hawaiian
Islands are one example of active volcanic processes.
However, there is still much to learn about how
Hawaiian volcanoes erupt and how island develops
from the ocean floor. The history of the volcanic
islands of Hawaii and the land formed by the
volcanoes is very contrasting and\mysterious.
KILAUEA'S FUMES OVER HAWAII A CONCERN
LONG-TERM EFFECTS ON HEALTH, CROPS, BUSINESS
CONCERN RESIDENTS
Vog Volcanic fog safety tips
•Stay indoors and use an air conditioner, if available.
•Do not smoke and avoid second-hand smoke.
•Limit physical exertion.
•Drink plenty of fluids to loosen mucus. Warm beverages
seem to work best.
•If you take medications, make sure you have an adequate
supply and keep them readily available in a convenient place.
•Contact your physician as soon as any respiratory problem
develops.
While these recommendations are intended primarily for
persons having respiratory or chronic lung disease, they are
also useful for healthy persons during vog episodes.
To obtain additional information on respiratory health, contact
your personal physician or the American Lung Association of
Hawai`i at (808) 537-5966.
So-called vog, or volcanic fog, forms when sulfur
dioxide gas reacts with sunlight, oxygen, dust
particles and water in the air. Tiny droplets known as
sulfate aerosols are created, along with sulfuric acid
and other substances.
Elevated levels of sulfur dioxide gas could cause
breathing problems, especially among those with
respiratory conditions such as asthma, emphysema
and bronch
Halau makes offering to Pele
at Kilauea Volcano lookout
:Dancers with Halau Ka
Liko Pua O Kalaniakea,
under the direction of Kumu
Kapua Dalire-Moe danced
and chanted to pay their
respects to Pele on April 2,
2008. Volcanic fumes
spewed from Halemaumau
in the background. After the
halau danced and chanted,
they threw all their leis into
the crater, returning them
back to the earth
Air
Pollution
Dispersion and
Air Quality
Forecasting
Located in the Central Pacific, just south of the Tropic
of Cancer and east of the International Date Line, the
islands of Hawai‘i enjoy a tropical climate. The
general climate of the islands features moderate
temperature from the high 70s to the mid 80s (degrees
Fahrenheit) throughout the year. The islands are also
subjected to winds generally from the northeast and
localized rainfall storms.
Chemicals and Ingredients of the
Volcanic Eruptions
determine the Health Risks
Dispersion
and Air
Quality
Forecasting
WHAT IS AIR POLLUTION
Definition
Chemical, physical or biological agents that alter the
natural characteristics of the Earth’s atmosphere
Examples
Chemical:
Polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH)
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Physical:
Particulate matter (PM), nuclear radiation
Biological: Pollen, mold, germ warfare
SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
Human activities
Manufacturing, trade & warfare
Fuel & power production
Agricultural production & burning
Transportation
Household activities & waste disposal
Construction
Natural?
Volcanic eruptions, wildlife emissions, dust, wildfires, radiation
Air Pollution – Natural Pollution, Volcanic Air Pollution
Types of Contamination Gases, Vapors, Aerosols,
Particulates, Volcanic Ash
Public Health- How does air pollution affect me?
Air Quality Index
More Information
All around the earth there is a thick blanket of air called the atmosphere.
Air, like other gases, does not have a fixed shape. It spreads out to fill
any available space so nothing is really empty. But air cannot escape
from the atmosphere as the force of gravity keeps it from floating away
from the earth.
Volcano Smoke
Particles
Volcanic degassing
vog
The volcanic smog--or
vog, as it is called-contains sulfur dioxide,
which turns rainwater
acidic and causes
respiratory health
problems.
Long-lasting Eruption of
Kilauea Volcano, Hawai`i
Leads to Volcanic-Air
Pollution of volcanic
smoke particles
Vog may pose health hazard
Volcanic Air Pollution—A Hazard in Hawai`i
When Lava Meets the Sea –
Lava Haze or Laze Air Pollution
Pahoehoe lava enters sea. Extreme heat from lava entering the sea
rapidly boils and vaporizes seawater, leading to a series of chemical
reactions. The boiling and reactions produce a large white plume, locally
known as lava haze or laze, which contains a mixture of hydrochloric
acid (HCl) and concentrated seawater.
Avoid standing beneath a laze
plume.
Dense laze plumes contain as
much as 10-15 parts per million
of hydrochloric acid. These
values drop off sharply as the
plume moves away from the lava
entry areas. During along-shore
or on-shore winds, this plume
produces acid rain that may fall
on people and land along the
coast. This rain (pH 1.5 to 2),
often more acidic that lime juice
or stomach acid, is very
corrosive to the skin and
clothing. Visitors to the lava
entry areas should avoid standing
directly in, under, or downwind
of the laze plume. \
Much is still unknown about vog's composition and its effects on health.
On the Island of Hawai`i, the trade winds (blue arrows) blow the vog
from its main source on the volcano (white plume) to the southwest,
where wind patterns send it up the island's Kona coast. Here, it becomes
trapped by daytime (onshore) and nighttime (offshore) sea breezes
(double-headed arrows). In contrast, when light "kona" winds (red
arrows) blow, much of the vog is concentrated on the eastern side of the
island, but some can even reach Oahu, more than 200 miles to the
northwest.
GAS ADVISORY SYSTEM HELPS ALERT Current Conditions
PEOPLE OF HAWAI‘I due to Volcano Smoke Last
Particles
Updated: 04/07/2007 •
10:45 AM HST
Sulfur Dioxide
Good Moderate
Unhealthy
SO2 gas plume
crosses road near
Halemaumau and
low on Chain of
Craters Road.
Sensitive
individuals should
limit exposure in
these areas.
The hydrochloric acid (HCl) comes from the breakdown of
seawater-derived chlorides during sudden boiling. Because the
lava is largely degassed by the time it reaches the sea, any
HCL coming from it is insignificant by comparison. Analyzed
samples of the plume show that is is a brine with a salinity of
about 2.3 times that of seawater and a pH of 1.5-2.0.
Key seawater chloride breakdown reactions that produce
HCl gas
•MgCl2 (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = MgO (periclase) + 2HCl
(HCl gas)
•2 NaCl (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = Na2O (sodium oxide) + 2
HCL (HCl gas)
•CaCl2 (sea salt) + H2O (steam) = CaO (lime) + 2 HCL (HCl
Volcanic Air Pollution—A Hazard in Hawai`i
Health officials have warned people with asthma, bronchitis,
emphysema, and allergies to stay indoors where there is air-conditioning
or filtered air, to avoid strenuous exercise, and to drink lots of water. The
vog can also affect children and the elderly.
http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/fs169-97/
Noxious sulfur dioxide gas and other pollutants emitted from Kilauea
Volcano on the Island of Hawai`i react with oxygen and atmospheric
moisture to produce volcanic smog (vog) and acid rain. Vog poses a
health hazard by aggravating preexisting respiratory ailments, and acid
rain damages crops and can leach lead into household water supplies.
Much is still unknown about vog's composition and its effects on health.
The U.S. Geological Survey's Hawaiian Volcano Observatory is closely
monitoring gas emissions from Kilauea and working with health
professionals and local officials to better understand volcanic air
pollution and to enhance public awareness of this hazard.
Air pollution
Pollution usually refers to the presence of substances that are either
present in the environment where it doesn't belong or at levels greater
than it should be.
Air pollution is caused by any undesirable substance, which enters the
atmosphere. Air pollution is a major problem in modern society. Even
though air pollution is usually a greater problem in cities, pollutants
contaminate air everywhere. These substances include various gases and
tiny particles, or particulates that can harm human health and damage the
environment. They may be gases, liquids, or solids. Many pollutants are
given off into the air as a result of human behavior. Pollution occurs on
different levels: personal, national, and global.
Some pollutants come from natural sources.
Forest fires emit particulates, gases, and VOCs (Volatile organic
compounds and substances that vaporize into the atmosphere)
Ultra-fine dust particles created by soil erosion when water and weather
loosen layers of soil, increase airborne particulate levels.
Volcanoes spew out sulfur dioxide and large amounts of pulverized lava
Passive
Eruptive
Which emission
source is larger?
Passive or
Eruptive?
•
•
•
•
•
Reventador (Ecuador)
Nyiragongo (DR Congo)
No eruption of magma
• Magma erupted (ash)
Long-lived (weeks-centuries)
• Short-lived (hours-days)
Low altitude - tropospheric (<5 km)• High altitude - stratospheric (<40
km)
Environmental/health hazard
Climate impacts poorly understood • Aviation hazard (ash)
Steam rises under a forbidding sky, as lava from the Piton de la Fournaise volcano drains
into the Indian Ocean. The 2,632 meters (8,635 feet) mount, on Reunion Island, has
erupted three times this year. The latest phase began on 2 April. The island, a French
territory, neighbors Mauritius.
Natural Background Aerosol
 Stratospheric and tropospheric aerosol
 Stratospheric aerosol
• 11-50 km
• Formation of sulfuric acid droplets
by gas-to-particle conversion of
SO2 injected into the stratosphere
by major volcanic eruptions
 Tropospheric aerosol
• <11 km
• Direct emissions from natural
sources: desert, ocean, and
vegetations
• Gas-to-particle formation
Does tropospheric aerosol
concentration vary with
altitude? Why?
Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo
(in the Philippines) in 1991
Do You Know…
During the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo,
14-20 Tg (1 Tg= 106 tons) of SO2
was injected into the stratosphere,
causing the aerosol concentration to
increase from 2-5 µg/m3 to 20-100
µg/m3
Net solar radiation at Mauna Loa Observatory, relative to 1958, showing
the effects of major volcanic eruptions. Annual variations are due to
transport of Asian dust and air pollution to Hawaii
www.research.noaa.gov/climate/t_greenhouse.html
Volcanic Gas Emissions Volcanic Smoke Particles
Vog
Contour map
of volcanic
air pollution
in the Kau
District, Big
Island of
Hawai'i,
during
September
2003.
Eruption at
Kilauea
Volcano
produces a
visible plume
from the
eruption vent
and
degassing
from the
summit.
Hawaiian residents who live downwind from the long-active Kilauea
volcano may have elevated risks of adverse health conditions because of
high levels of sulfur dioxide and aerosol particulates that drift downwind,
Eye irritation
Headache
Upper respiratory
Irritation
Nausea, dizziness
Fatigue, lethargy
Sore/dry throat
Odor
Memory impairment
Vog and acid rain affect water quality
Many residents on the
island of Hawaii depend
on rainwater collected by
rooftop catchment
systems for drinking
water. The continuous
release of volcanic gases,
especially sulfur dioxide,
causes rainwater to
become acidic downwind
of Kilauea's erupting
vents. When it falls on
roofs, this acid rain
leaches lead from roofing
nails and paint. The leadcontaminated rainwater
then fills the water
catchment tanks, creating
Volcano
Kilauea
Summit
Hot Spot
1170°C
Erta` Ale
Divergent Plate
1130°C
Momotombo
Convergent
Plate
820°C
37.1
77.2
97.1
Carbon Dioxide C0
48.9
11.3
1.44
Sulfur Dioxide S0
11.8
8.34
0.50
Hydrogen H
0.49
1.39
0.70
Carbon Monooxide CO
1.51
0.44
0.01
Hydrogen Sulfide H S
0.04
0.68
0.23
Hydrochloric Acid HCl
0.08
0.42
2.89
Hydrofluoric Acid HF
---
---
0.26
Tectonic Style
Temperature
Water Vapor H 0
2
2
2
2
2
Examples of volcanic gas compositions, in volume percent
concentrations (from Symonds et. al., 1994)
A volcanic eruption may send ash and sulfate gas high into the
atmosphere. The sulfate may combine with water to produce tiny
droplets (aerosols) of sulfuric acid, which reflect sunlight back into
space. Large eruptions reach the middle stratosphere (19 miles or 30
kilometers high). At this altitude, the aerosols can spread around the
world.
The Earth's atmosphere is made up mostly of nitrogen (78%) and oxygen
(21%), with a small amount of "trace gases" (1%) mixed in. But, that tiny
percentage of trace gases - such as carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and
carbon monoxide - contribute in a big way to changes in the Earth's
climate. Such trace gases, also called greenhouse gases, allow energy
from the sun (known as shortwave radiation) to reach the earth's surface,
but absorb energy emitted from the earth (known as longwave radiation);
this affects the surface energy balance of the planet by warming the
atmosphere directly above it resulting in long-term changes to global
climate. Although a greenhouse also works by trapping energy from the
sun, the physics is different. The roof of a greenhouse is a slab of glass
that traps radiation emitted from the ground which prevents convection
(i.e. rising hot air) from allowing heat to escape. The atmospheric
greenhouse is based on certain molecules (e.g. carbon dioxide) absorbing
radiation at particular wavelengths (such as that emitted from the ground)
and reemitting a portion back to the ground. Although an excess of
greenhouse gas results in global warming, naturally occurring
greenhouse gases are beneficial in keeping our planet at a comfortable
Aerosols
Small particles in the atmosphere - from smoke, dust, manufacturing, and
other sources - can affect how the Earth system behaves. For example,
aerosols can absorb and scatter radiation, which can cause either
warming or cooling of the atmosphere. They also are important to the
formation and behavior of clouds, and can influence the water cycle and
the Earth's radiative balance.
Sierra Negra (Galapagos Is) eruption October, 2005
22 Oct 2005
27 Oct 2005
• Effusive eruption
• Oct 22 - Nov 1, 2005
23 Oct 2005
Topography
• At night, cold, dense surface air drains downhill into
low-lying areas, making them susceptible to strong
temperature inversions
• Hills and mountains can block flow (like Mauna
Loa)
• Sea breezes can trap pollution in its vertical
circulation (East Maui)
A volcanic eruption may send
ash and sulfuric acid (SO2) into
the atmosphere, which
increases planetary reflectivity
causing atmospheric cooling.
Over time precipitation will
remove these aerosols from the
atmosphere. Volcanic eruptions
can have a worldwide impact.
A massive volcanic eruption can
cool the Earth for one or two years.
The 1982 El Chichon eruption and
the 1991 Pinatubo eruption caused
the globally averaged surface
temperature to cool less than 1°F
Acid Rain
• Note that “clean” rain is naturally acidic (pH of
5.6) due to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
dissolving in the water to create carbonic acid
H2O + CO2 —> H2CO3
• Other acids are created when pollution aerosols
dissolve in water
• Important acids created due to man’s activities
are sulfuric acid and nitric acid
Sulfuric Acid
• Sulfur dioxide dissolves in water to create
a weak acid, sulfurous acid
SO2 + H2O —> H2SO3
• Sulfurous acid then can react with oxygen
to create sulfuric acid
H2SO3+
O2 —> H2SO4
• Once again, sulfur dioxide is emitted
primarily by coal-burning power plants
Nitric Acid
• Nitric acid is created when nitric oxide (NO)
oxidizes, yielding nitrogen dioxide (NO2). The
nitrogen dioxide then dissolves in water creating
nitric acid (HNO3) and nitrous acid (HNO2)
2NO2 + H2O—> HNO3 + HNO3
• High temperature combustion, such as
automobiles, produced the nitric oxide that
began this process
Acid Rain Consequences
•
•
•
•
•
Crop and forest damage
Increase in acidity for lakes, rivers
Death of fish and wildlife
Weathering of monuments and buildings
Health impacts for those prone to respiratory
ailments
Particulate Pollutants
Sources of Atmospheric Aerosol
TABLE 1 Sources and Estimates of Global Emissions
of Atmospheric Aerosols (Data from: W.C. Hinds,
Aerosol Technology, 2nd Edition, Wiley Interscience)
Source
Amount, Tg/yr [106 metric
tons/yr]
Range
Best
Estimate
Soil dust
1000 - 3000
1500
Sea salt
1000 10000
1300
Botanical debris
26 - 80
50
4 - 10000
30
3 - 150
20
100 - 260
180
40 - 200
60
2200 24000
3100
50 - 160
120
260 - 460
330
5 - 25
10
320 - 640
460
Natural
Volcanic dust
Forest fires
Gas-to-particle conversion
Photochemical
Total for natural sources
Anthropogenic
Direct emissions
Gas-to-particle conversion
Photochemical
Total for anthropogenic
sources
Which emission source
is larger? Natural or
anthropogenic?
The Air Quality Index is a tool used by EPA and other agencies to provide the public with
timely and easy-to-understand information on local air quality and whether air pollution levels
pose a health concern. The AQI tells the public how clean the air is and whether or not they should
be concerned for their health. The AQI is focused on health effects that can happen within a few
hours or days after breathing polluted air .
Toxins in the Air
• As a result, EPA is now using an exposure
assessment methodology that measures all
the exposures to toxics regardless of media
(e.g., air, water, land).
What Is Exposure Assessment?
• Scientists and government officials use a
four-step process called risk assessment to
estimate people's increased risk of health
problems as a result of exposure to a toxic
air pollutant.
THE 4-STEP EXPOSURE
ASSESSMENT
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is perhaps the only place on earth where visitors arrive
in continuous carloads to peer at volcanic landscapes, erupting ashy craters, calderas,
cones, plumes of gas, and skeletons of trees and to clamber over sharp rock, desperate
to see lava. Despite many posted warnings, people in open-toed sandals and shorts
eagerly trot along newly hardened, still hot lava to peek through a sudden opening and
catch a glimpse of the red flow. The desire to be as close as possible to this force of
nature has cost five people their lives in the past decade because they ignored warnings
either about lava hazards or about medical conditions that can be aggravated by sulfuric
fumes. At the same time, however, Hawaiian volcanoes are, as volcanoes go, gentle
giants ones--so if you are going lava hunting, this is the place to do it. Hawaiian lava
here is more fluid than most and contains less gas, so it is less explosive and gives rise
to what are called shield volcanoes because of their sloping profiles. landscape, a
battlefield of burned trees and buried houses--although a few structures stand stranded
in small patches of rain forest, spared by the flow. Pu`u `O`o destroyed the Royal
Gardens community here between 1983 and 1986 and covered part of the park's Chain
of Craters Road. From the air it is easy to appreciate the power and reach of the
volcano, the primal force shaping this island, creating new land (about 600 acres' worth
so far), incinerating everything in its path
Gas composition: monitor the composition of gases that are continually
vented from the volcano, and note some unique changes in the gas
composition have correlated with eruptions that followed
Air mass moves in
An air mass moves toward a mountain.
This air mass holds water vapor that has evaporated from an ocean
Air mass forced upward :The slope of the mountain forces the air mass upward. .As the
air moves higher, it becomes less dense. The reason is that, at higher elevations, there is
less air above to push down on the air mass. This decrease in air pressure causes the air
to expand. As it expands, it cools. This process, called adiabatic cooling, typically results
Clouds form :As the air is forced higher, it cools even more. When it
reaches its dew point -- the temperature at which water vapor in the air
becomes saturated—water molecules within the air start to condense,
forming water droplets. These droplets are visible as clouds.
Rain, sleet, and snow: The air continues to cool as it rises, but not as
fast as before because condensation heats the air. As it cools, more water
drops form. When they get large enough, they fall to the Earth in the
form of rain, sleet, or snow. This is why the windward side of a mountain
is usually wetter than its leeward side.
Over the summit: After the air mass passes over the mountain's summit, it begins to
descend. Just as the air cooled as it became less dense, it now begins to warm as it
becomes denser at lower elevations—again, at a rate of about 5.5°F for every 1,000 feet.
This process is called adiabatic warming.In addition to becoming denser and warmer, the
air's relative humidity decreases as it descends. Relative humidity is the total amount of
water vapor in the air, measured as a percentage of water vapor the air can hold at a
given temperature.
Rain shadow: The warmed air mass, which lost most of its water content on the other
side of the mountain, warms quickly as it descends. Because heat was added to the air
mass when, on the other side of the mountain, its water vapor condensed, it can be
much warmer when it reaches the base of the mountain—as much as 50°F warmer than
it was before it started its ascent. The lack of moisture, and rain, on the leeward side of
a mountain is known as its "rain shadow."
For those who live on or near mountains, a change of climate can be just
a short walk away. That's because mountains create their own
microclimates—areas in which the climate differs from the prevailing
climate. Take Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea or Haleakala. These volcanoes in
Hawaii have microclimates that range from scorching at the base to
frigid at the summit. (For a look at the mountain's six ecological zones,
see Figures.) The flow of air masses over these volcanoes and other
mountains also influences microclimates, often causing wet (or snowy)
weather on one side and a dry, clear climate on the other.
The volcanic smog--or vog, as it is called--contains
sulfur dioxide, which turns rainwater acidic and
causes respiratory health problems.
Flank
eruption
Vog, volcanic smog, is a concern to the residents of the Big Island of
Hawai'i because of the possible harm it is doing to their health,
agriculture, and the tourist industry. (Monastersky, 1995) Sore throats,
headaches, allergies, and bronchitis have been blamed as some of the
health hazards of vog
VOG: Volcanic Smoke+ Fog)
lava slowly comes out, but so does smoke containing sulfur, mercury,
and arsenic. 80% of the time the NE Tradewinds blow and keep this
VOG (volcanic fog) off Maui. When the trades don't blow, the VOG
drifts over Hawaii and Maui, and it gets hazy
During prevailing trade wind conditions, the nearly constant stream of
volcanic smog (vog) produced by Kilauea Volcano on the Island of
Hawai`i is blown to the southwest and west (satellite image shows
increasing amounts of vog aerosol particles in yellow, orange, and red,
respectively); traces have been detected as far away as Johnston Island,
1,000 miles to the southwest. On the Island of Hawai`i, the trade winds
(blue arrows) blow the vog from its main source on the volcano (white
plume) to the southwest, where wind patterns send it up the island's
Kona coast. Here, it becomes trapped by daytime (onshore) and
nighttime (offshore) sea breezes (double-headed arrows). In contrast,
when light "kona" winds (red arrows) blow, much of the vog is
concentrated on the eastern side of the island, but some can even reach
Oahu, more than 200 miles to the northwest. (The names of the five
volcanoes that make up the Island of Hawai`i are shown in yellow.
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) satellite
image processed by John Porter and collected by Pierre Flament,
University of Hawai`i.)
VOG: Volcanic Smoke+ Fog
HVO shows how scientists take temperature readings in the volcano's
crater to help them predict how far below the surface the magma lies.
Molten lava from Kilauea Volcano frequently flows through underground
lava tubes to reach the Pacific Ocean, where it vigorously reacts with
cold seawater to create large steam plumes laden with hydrochloric acid
(HCl). These plumes, known as "laze", are another form of volcanic air
pollution and pose a local environmental hazard along the Island of
Hawaii's southeast coast and southeastern Maui, especially to people
who visit these ocean-entry sites.
Kilauea is the single largest source of volcanic sulfur dioxide in the
world, emitting as much as 1,800 tons of the gas a day, and 40,000
truckloads of volcanic materials on the land.
When a volcanic erupts, sulfur dioxide
within the molten rock is converted to
sulfuric acid. The resulting plume is known
as vog (volcanic fog). Gases are also
produced at the ocean. When the lava
enters the ocean, hydochloric acid is
produced - called laze (lava haze). Both of
these gases can contain particulate matter,
such as volcanic glass or trace metals.
Vog and laze are carried by winds across
the county. The impacts include:
obscured views;
lower agricultural yields for certain crops;
adverse health effects for people with
respiratory or heart conditions; and
acidified rainwater catchment tanks (which,
in turn, produces a secondary hazard of
leached lead in local water supplies).
The goals of the Lung Assessment during Volcanic Activity study, LAVA
for short, include:
Teaching residents research skills enabling them to participate in their
environmental health and safety.
Assessing the community's exposure to vog over the last 10 years, based
on historical records of weather patterns and volcanic emissions.
Measuring current acidity and amount of particles small enough to
breathe.
Studying the respiratory systems and lung functions of children across
the island who have lived their entire lives with vog.
Studying the lung growth and health of these children
five areas on the Big Island: the Kona Coast (west Hawaii), Hilo (east
Hawaii), Ka’u, (on Hawaii’s south coast), Waimea and the Kohala Coast
(on the northern tip of the island).
LAVA project : Elizabeth Tam, a pulmonologist at the University of
Hawaii's John A. Burns School of Medicine on Oahu
Mt Ruapehu Crater Lake Lahar Threat Response - Image of Whangaehu
Valley, March 18, 2007.
What is a lahar?
Lahar is an Indonesian word that refers to a rapidly flowing mixture of
rock debris and water (other than normal water flows) from a volcano.
Large lahars can present a significant natural hazard. When they
overflow their channels they can destroy, erode or bury obstacles in their
path. There are various kinds of lahar. A debris flow lahar contains large
amounts of sediment (more than 60% of volume) of varying size (from
small particles to boulders) and flows like a slurry. A hyperconcentrated
flow lahar contains less sediment (mainly sand-sized particles or smaller)
and flows more like water. Management precautions for the predicted
Crater Lake lahar are based on a debris flow lahar.
A train passes over a bridge over
the Whangaehu River at the
scene of the historic Tangiwai
Rail disaster after a mud flow
from the crater lake of Mount
Ruapehu, in the central North
Island, New Zealand, Sunday,
March 18, 2007. A potentially
lethal mix of mud, acidic water
and rocks tore down the slope of
New Zealand\'s Mount Ruapehu
on Sunday, emergency officials
said, but there was no immediate
threat to life. (AP Photo/NZPA,
Stephen Barker)
TVs & Computers
Personal Care/Cosmetics
Furniture
An
Ordinary
House
A Chemical
House
Automobile
Carpeting
Furniture
Flooring
Cleaning Products
& Pesticides
Air Conditioning/Central Heating