September 7th, 2007
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Similes compare two dissimilar objects,
concepts, etc., in order to suggest an
unexpected likeness between the two.
Similes can often be distinguished by the
presence of one of two code words, “like” and
“as.”
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Two Dissimilar
Subjects
◦ Blanket
◦ Snow
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If we wish to make
a comparison
between the way a
blanket covers a
bed and the way
the snow covers
the group, we
should use a
simile.
How can we use a
simile to compare
the two?
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The snow is like a
thick blanket on
the ground.
Notice the key
presence of “like.”
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If you choose to
use a metaphor
instead, remember
that you aren’t
simply comparing
the snow to the
blanket – you’re
equating the two!
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Rather than claiming
that the snow is like
the blanket, simply
claim that the two
are the same.
“The snow is a
blanket on the
earth.”
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Is the snow actually a
blanket? No!
However, the image
the equation creates
is a vividly
descriptive one – and
vivid images are
excellent!
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An easy way to
remember the
difference between
similes and
metaphors is to
determine whether
the writer is trying
to be direct.

“The snow is a
blanket” is direct;
the comparison in
“the snow is like a
blanket” is by
definition more
abstract than the
equation.
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At their core,
metaphors and
similes aren’t
separated by much;
in the previous
example, the
presence of the word
“like” is all that
distinguishes one
from the other
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“You are my
sunshine”
“You are like the sun”
Which is the
metaphor?
How can you tell that
the Langston Hughes
quote contains a
metaphor?
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Think of analogies as similes or metaphors
on steroids – the Barry Bonds of rhetorical
devices!
Analogies allow writers to help readers
understand difficult issues or concepts by
comparing them to familiar ones.
As a result, similarity between the difficult
concept and its familiar counterpart is
crucial; if there is no similarity, the
comparison is useless for rhetorical
purposes.
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Analogies can be separated into two parts.
Target – the unknown idea or object; we’re
trying to explain it, or at least make it clear.
Source – the familiar idea or object; we use
sources to shed light on the more
complicated target.
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There is a famous
analogy between our
solar system and atomic
structure.
 ^ Target
< Source
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The solar system works
as a source because it is
more familiar and
tangible.
Moreover, the two
share a common
structural property –
objects revolving
around a center
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“Think of an atom as a
miniature solar system;
the electrons revolve
around the nucleus in
the same way that
planets orbit our Sun.”
It’s a simple but
effective comparison.
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Let’s turn our attention to personification,
another type of figurative language.
Personification involves giving the qualities of
animals or persons to inanimate objects – to
animate the nonliving, a la Dr. Frankenstein
(although I supposed he was reanimating the
monster).
Once again, figurative language is used to bring
images, concepts, or objects to life!
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I like to see it lap the miles,
And lick the valleys up,
And stop to feed itself at tanks;
And then, prodigious, step
Around a pile of mountains,
And, supercilious, peer
In shanties by the sides of
roads;
And then a quarry pare
 Can you spot examples of
personification?
 Remember to look for
human emotions, human
actions, etc.
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To fit its sides, and crawl
between, Complaining all the
while
In horrid, hooting stanza;
Then chase itself down hill
And neigh like Boanerges;
Then, punctual as a start its
own,
Stop-docile and omnipotentA stable door.
 Can you spot examples of
personification?
 Remember to look for
human emotions, human
actions, etc.
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Lap the miles;
Lick the valleys up;
Stop to feed itself at tanks;
And then, prodigious, step
around…
And, supercilious, peer in
shanties…
Crawl between [the quarry
walls];
Complaining all the while in
horrid, hooting stanza;
Then chase itself down hill
And neigh like Boanerges;
So on and so forth…
 Dickinson gives the train
personality, and allows her
readers to think of it almost
as an independent entity –
an interesting linguistic
choice.
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Allusions have a double meaning; while the
words have a primary significance, they also
recall something else that the reader will find
familiar – a person or figure, a place, an event,
etc.
While allusions function symbolically, it’s
important to understand both the primary and
secondary meanings.
While this
is clearly
Keanu
Reeves, can
you spot
the Biblical
imagery?
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T.S. Eliot’s “The Waste Land” is incredibly
dense; it’s almost impossible to understand
the first time you read it because it’s so
packed with difficult allusions.
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While it’s a British text, Eliot was one of the
forefathers of the Modernist movement – a
literary phenomenon that dramatically
reshaped American literature after the First
World War.
In other words, you won’t read it in this class,
but it is important!
Try figuring this passage out:
What are the roots that clutch, what branches grow
Out of this stony rubbish? Son of man,
You cannot say, or guess, for you know only
A heap of broken images, where the sun beats,
And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no
relief,
And the dry stone no sound of water.
While the poem is “about” many things, it functions as
an angry protest of post-WWI life in Britain, and
London in particular. Eliot looked at his society and
saw a ruined country, and over-industrialized and
overpopulated nation devoid of beauty and faith.
He paints London as cultural and spiritual “waste land”
filled with people leading vacant, meaningless lives.
Watch how Eliot tethers his observations on the
degeneration of society to references to religion (the
poem contains many allusions to religious texts, both
Western and Eastern in origin); by doing so, he
provides a contrast to the present day that highlights
the decay of his nation.
Adapted from Wikipedia (not always the most
reputable of sources, but I can vouch for this, and
the writer sums the meaning up nicely):
The narrator is referred to as the "Son of man" – a
title used for Ezekiel, who God called upon to
warn Israel to repent of their idolatry. The deity
eventually tells Ezekiel that Israel will not change;
therefore, their altars will be desolate, images
broken, and their cities will lay in waste.
While this is what the poem is alluding to, the
images the words conjure prompt readers to
picture the ruin of post-war Britain – and
shudder.
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Why do writers want to use figurative
language, or figures of speech?
Because they’re based on comparisons,
figures of speech can make something that’s
difficult to understand seem more familiar,
interesting, and real – a useful trick for any
essay, persuasive or otherwise.
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These questions aren’t asked with the intention of
eliciting an auditory response.
◦ Rather, they cause the audience to question the other side
– and, in turn, accept yours.
◦ They attract the audience’s attention and gain interest
because the audience supplies the answer!
◦ “How many times do I have to tell you to do your
homework?” does not invite a response, but does expect
the listener to THINK of the answer.
◦ An invitation to imagine a situation or a description of a
dream acts as a rhetorical device, also. No audible
response invited here either, other than thinking.
 Imagine a debate is about the best way to treat a wounded
puppy. One side argues to take the puppy to a veterinarian,
and the other side argues that it’s best to leave the animal to
heal on its own.
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Writers who smoothly incorporate the words of
others into their works will seem more credible.
◦ If an author is arguing over an issue that confuses you,
and he or she offers quotes from individuals who seem
qualified to understand the matter, you’ll be more likely
to believe them.
 One note: If the author cites people that seem
unqualified to comment on the issue at hand, the
quotes can undermine their credibility!
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Deduction is the process of moving from a
formally stated premise (or premises) to a
logically valid conclusion.
◦ This means that writers must move from general
descriptions to specific or particular conclusions.
◦ The process allows writers to lead their audiences down
a specific rhetorical path – until they “logically” reach
the same conclusion as the author!
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Syllogism merely refers to the most basic form of
this process:
◦ Start with a major and minor premise
◦ Move logically from your premises to your conclusion
◦ The “Billy” example works well.
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These are fundamentally flawed arguments that
cannot be defended logically.
Instead of the “if p, then q” or “if not-p, then notq” style of argument, fallacies fall into a “if p, then
q…if not-q, then not-p” form – they’re backward!
◦ In order to use a fallacy for maximum effect, a writer must
convince the audience that his argument is not flawed,
and that his illogic is actually logical.
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“If we guillotine the king, then he will die.
Therefore, if we don't guillotine the king, then he
won't die.” – fallacyfiles.org
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This refers to instances when writers shift the
meaning of an important word in the middle of an
argument.
◦ The reason that the distinction between “creative” and
“creativity” is important – one refers to something that the
artists can do, while the other dares them to do
something that they aren’t qualified to perform!
◦ It’s a fairly sneaky way of making an argument or charge –
which is why it’s usually effective.
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Simply put, this is when people ignore the
nuances of life – when they assume that
extremes are our only choices instead of
recognizing multiple possibilities.
“Someone is either good or evil.”
◦ Do good people behave well at all times? Is an evil
person incapable of positive action?
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Presenting situations as “all” or “none” usually
results in an invalid argument; there are
usually exceptions that need to be
considered.
Overgeneralization saps an argument of its
effectiveness, so don’t use it!
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This looks confusing, but it’s really simple!
It describes an attempt to prove causality
when there is none; the author states that a
second event is caused by a first because it
came afterward.
Remember: Something may have happened
after another event, but the first event
doesn’t necessarily cause the second.
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This term seems misleading, because no
question is actually being asked.
It describes a controversial statement by a
writer that invites a skeptical reader to
question it; in other words, the author states
something that could be argued as though it
is an immutable fact!
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Ad hominem refers to “attacks against the person.”
It’s an attempt by the writer to distract you from
the issue at hand by focusing instead on the
credibility of his or her opponent.
This technique is usually used by authors who
cannot win a debate based on the soundness or
logic of their position; it’s a last-gasp effort to
convince the reader to join their side, rather than
convince them that their side is the correct one.
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A red herring is fishy (har har har), and
almost identical to an argument ad hominem
The difference between the two lies in their
foci; the argument ad hominem switches
focus from subject to opponent, whereas the
red herring switches from one subject to
another.
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Subordination indicates that one clause
(Clause A) is more important than another
(Clause B)
Coordination, on the other hand, indicates
that both clauses are equally important or
independent of one another.
These can be recognized by the presence of
FANBOYS – the coordinating conjunctions For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, or So.
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Logos: Appealing to one’s reason or logic
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Pathos: Appealing to one’s emotion or pity
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Ethos: Appealing to one’s ethics or morality
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Parallelism - Refers to the repetition of words
or phrases that have similar grammatical
structures.
◦ The overall effect is one of emphasis, and often
makes a writer’s argument seem more structured.
Rhetorical Device
Simile
Metaphor
Analogy
Personification
Allusion
Rhetorical Question
Quote
Figurative Language
Deduction
Syllogism
Fallacies
Equivocation
Either/Or Fallacy
Overgeneralization
Post Hoc, Ergo Propter Hoc
Begging the Question
Argument Ad Hominem
Red Herring
Subordination
Coordination
Logos
Pathos
Ethos
Parallelism