The Effects of Job Characteristics on Citizenship Performance:
A Test of Models and Facet-Level Exploration
a
Caitlin M. Cavanaugh, M. S. and John T. Hazer, Ph.D. b
a The University of Akron
b Indiana University-Purdue University, Indianapolis
Introduction & Hypotheses
Method
Results
• Citizenship performance is defined as behaviors that support the environment in which the
technical core must function, and that are not prescribed by the job itself (Borman &
Motowidlo, 1993). Research has supported three facets of citizenship performance:
personal support, organizational support, and conscientious initiative (Boman, Penner,
Allen, & Motowidlo, 2001).
The sample consisted of 379 students at IUPUI enrolled in psychology courses who
were at least 18 years old and employed at least 20 hours a week. Participants completed
the following using SurveyMonkey:
H1 and H2: Test of Models
Both models were tested using LISREL (Jöreskog & Sorbom, 2006). The two models were
compared using model fit statistics indicated to be the most commonly reported measures by Kline
(2006): the model chi square (Kline, 2006), root mean square error of approximation (Browne &
Cudek, 1993; Steiger, 1990), comparative fit index (Bentler, 1990; Hu & Bentler, 1999), and the
standardized root mean square residual (Kline, 2006).
• Relationships between various job characteristics and constructs similar to citizenship
performance have been uncovered in the “Substitutes for Leadership Literature”
(Podsakoff, MacKenzie, & Bommer, 1996; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach,
2000; Todd & Kent, 2006). A review of the literature established correlational relationships
between the core job characteristics and citizenship performance, and between the critical
psychological states and citizenship performance, providing evidence that supported the
mediated relationship suggested by the JCM (Baron & Kenney, 1986).
• Hackman and Oldham (1980) asserted that organizations too often make the mistake of
placing most emphasis on individual characteristics when trying to understand behavior,
and tend to ignore aspects of the work environment. These researchers developed the Job
Characteristics Model (JCM) as a way to “extend, refine, and systematize the
relationships between job characteristics and individual responses to work” (p. 255).
•
•
•
•
•
•
a demographic questionnaire
relevant portions of the Job Diagnostic Survey (Hackman & Oldham, 1980)
an index of Job Satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951).
a measure of citizenship performance (Motowidlo & Van Scotter, 1994)
a measure of personality dimensions Conscientiousness and Agreeableness (IPIP)
a measure of Work Locus of Control (Spector ,1988)
Participants were compensated with credits towards the research requirement for their
psychology courses.
Fit indices address only the overall fit of the model– certain aspects of the model may have poor fit
even if the overall indicator is acceptable, and vice versa (Kline, 2006). Fit indices cannot indicate
whether a model is theoretically meaningful, as a model could have favorable fit, but have poor
predictive power. Therefore, the ratio of significant paths and variance accounted for were included
to provide additional information about each model’s performance in terms of theoretical value.
Original Job Characteristics Model
While neither model fit well, the elaborated JCM accounted for more variance and contained more
significant paths.
• Research on outcomes in the JCM has focused on task performance and job satisfaction
(Fried & Ferris, 1987). The model has received mixed support when using task
performance as an outcome, with meta-analyses revealing stronger relationships between
the critical psychological states and affective outcomes (e.g., job satisfaction).
H3: Incremental Validity Analyses
Four hierarchical regression analyses determined if job characteristics components uniquely
contribute to prediction of citizenship performance beyond Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, and
Locus of Control. Generally, JCM variables accounted for 11% additional variance; however, the
critical psychological states carried most of the weight.
• Noting the tendency for citizenship performance to be driven by attitudinal factors
(Bateman & Organ, 1983) and affective states (Rioux & Penner, 2001), we argue that this
particular type of performance should be more affected by the critical psychological states
than task performance.
• H1: The critical psychological states will mediate the positive relationships between
the core job characteristics and performance.
• Acknowledging the well-established relationship between job satisfaction and citizenship
performance (e.g., Bateman & Organ, 1983; Namm, 2004; Organ, 1988) the present study
proposes a second model to serve as a comparator to the JCM model with citizenship as an
outcome.
• H2: An elaborated JCM, where job satisfaction mediates the positive relationship
between the critical psychological states and citizenship performance will be a better
fit to the data than the original JCM posited in H1.
Elaborated Job Characteristics Model
• Keeping in mind the wealth of research establishing predictive relationships between
several individual difference variables and citizenship performance, the current study aims
to empirically demonstrate the potential value of considering environmental characteristics
(i.e., job characteristics).
• H3: The JCM variables will provide incremental validity beyond agreeableness,
conscientiousness, and locus of control in the prediction of citizenship performance.
For questions, comments, or to request a copy of this paper, please contact
Caitlin Cavanaugh at: cmc184@zips.uakron.edu
A portion of this study was presented at the 2011 Industrial OrganizationalOrganizational Behavior Graduate Student Conference in San Diego, CA.
Contributions and Implications
• The current study strengthens support for use of the JCM as a way to explain observed
relationships between job characteristics and citizenship performance, and supports Hackman
and Oldham’s (1980) assertion that practitioners should consider job design changes to
improve (citizenship) performance.
• The critical psychological states carry most of the weight in predicting citizenship performance.
Therefore, focusing on meaningfulness and responsibility seems to be most important in order
to increase citizenship performance.
• The incremental validity of JCM variables beyond well-established individual differences
demonstrates the importance of the environment’s unique contribution to behavior, which has
implications for HR systems and job design.