Chapter 30
Suicide
Objectives
• Outline the prevalence of suicide in the United
States and its prison populations
• Explain the correlation between social and
individual characteristics and suicide
• Describe the steps needed to construct a
proper correctional suicide prevention and
treatment program
Social and Individual Considerations
• Demographic factors cause people to experience life
differently, leading to different stressors and coping
skills
• Men constitute 80% of completed suicides, while
women self-report three times more attempts
• Men are more likely to use a firearm
• Caucasians are twice as likely to commit suicide as
African Americans
• Third leading killer of young people 15-24
Social and Individual Considerations (cont.)
• Individual risk factors
– History of mental illness
– Substance abuse
– Previous suicide attempts
– Isolation
– Relationship loss
– Feelings of hopelessness
– Physical illness
Social and Individual Considerations (cont.)
• Protective factors
– Family and community support
– Interpersonal coping skills
– Cultural or religious beliefs that suicide is wrong
Stigma
• Some religions state that suicide leads to
eternal damnation
• Others are more respectful of deceased and
family
• Some people shun family or blame them
• Correctional officers must value the lives of
suicidal inmates to ensure that prevention
programs work
Correlates of Suicide
• Small jails have rates 5 times that of large
ones
• Whites and males are most likely to kill
themselves
• Jail suicide was concentrated in first week
• Hanging was most common method
Legal Considerations
• Legal responsibility depends on concept of
deliberate indifference
• Corrections workers must have known that a
person was suicidal and did nothing about it
Attitudes and Training
• Staff members ask about suicidal risk factors
such as previous suicide attempts
• May refer at-risk inmates to mental health or
substance abuse professionals
Attitudes and Training (cont.)
• Six-point framework for written policy
– Training
– Identification and Assessment
– Housing
– Levels of Supervision
– Intervention
– Follow-Up Administrative Reviews
Program Example
• High rate of suicide in Kentucky lead to
creation of Jail Mental Health Crisis Network
• Provides following services:
– Training on signs of suicide and mental illness
– Screening instruments identify risk and needs
– Assessment via phone
– Management protocols for each level
– Mental Health follow-up by trained professionals
Community Health Workers
• Many rural areas have services provided by
private psychiatrists, psychologists, and social
workers.
• Often have standing contracts with
community mental health centers
Conclusion
• Suicide rates in correctional setting have
decreased since 1980s
• Suicide prevention programs have been
advanced to focus on first week of
incarceration as well as inmates with mental
health and substance abuse issues
Chapter 31
The Death Penalty
Objectives
• Describe the role of religious and activist
groups in the capital punishment debate
• Explain why the death penalty has become
such an emotional topic in the administration
of justice in the United States
• Examine how states differ in their capital
punishment laws
A Brief History
• Capital punishment goes back to earliest
human cultures
• Methods were cruel and the goal of
punishment was to create a painful
experience
• Some states abolished death penalty in early
1900s; others reinstated it later
• Supreme Court ruled in Furman v. Georgia
that the use of the death penalty was cruel
and unusual punishment because it was not
applied fairly to all defendants
A Brief History (cont.)
• In Gregg v. Georgia, the Supreme Court
approved guidelines for a jury to follow in
determining the death penalty
• Ruled against mandating the death penalty for
certain crimes
• States returned to greater use of the death
penalty following these rulings
Arguments Against the Death Penalty
• Long waits on death row
– Few individuals are actually executed
– Between 1973 and 1995, only 5% of inmates on
death row nationwide were executed
• Unclear qualifications
– Inconsistency in sentencing guidelines comes from
ambiguous standards in the law
– Inmates find myriad loopholes to prolong their
stay on death row
– Interpretations vary widely among judges and
juries due to loosely defined guidelines
Arguments Against the Death Penalty
(cont.)
• Complexity of appeals
– Complexity of appeals contributes to significant
time delays
– Estimated 40% of decisions are reversed on
appeal
• High financial cost
– Capital punishment is actually more costly than
life in prison without parole
Arguments Against the Death Penalty
(cont.)
• Racial discrimination
– Some argue that the process discriminates against
some races and ethnicities
– Offenders with Caucasian victims are more likely
to be sentenced to death
– African Americans are overrepresented on death
row
– Those with low socioeconomic status are also
disproportionately given death sentences
Arguments Against the Death Penalty
(cont.)
• Limited effect on deterrence
– Infrequency with which capital punishment is
imposed can hardly be expected to deter others
– Irregularity and inconsistency of dispensing the
death penalty is its greatest weakness
• Failure of legal representation
– ABA voted to halt the death penalty due to
concern over the inconsistent quality of legal
representation
Arguments Against the Death Penalty
(cont.)
• Unfair application based on location of the
crime
– Prosecutors in urban areas seek the death penalty
five times more than those in rural areas
• Wrongful execution
– Possibility of executing an innocent person is a
major weakness
– Over 115 people have been proven innocent and
released from death row in the past 30 years
Support for Capital Punishment
• Death penalty advocates argue that costs would be
significantly lowered in capital punishment cases
without prolonging trials and appeals – Constitution
does not guarantee them “super due process”
• Some argue the death penalty deters others from
crime
• Greatest support is simply retribution – death
penalty is deserved punishment for some crimes
• May offer comfort to families of the victims
Death Row Operations
• Average inmate spends 12.25 years on death
row before execution
• Some states mainstream death-sentenced
inmates
• Most states have separate death row
operations
• Inmates spend most of their time in secure
cells and are out minimal time for recreation
and showers
Emotional Ordeal of an Execution
• Traumatic for staff
• Institutions are careful to protect the identity
of those who participate
• AMA prohibits participation of physicians
• Nurses or emergency medical technicians are
often responsible for inserting the needles
Special Exemptions
• Roper v. Simmons – Supreme Court ruled that
offenders under the age of 18 when they
committed the crime cannot be executed
• Atkins v. Virginia – Supreme Court ruled it
cruel and unusual punishment to execute
mentally handicapped persons
Conclusion
• Whether one invokes economic, moral, social,
or legal reasoning, it is not enough to convince
the other side of the rightfulness or
wrongfulness of the death penalty
Chapter 32
Gang Management
Objectives
• Describe which criteria distinguish prison and
street gangs in a correctional institution
• Examine management dilemmas that prison
and street gangs pose to the safe and orderly
operation of prisons
• Outline how unmonitored communication
networks can create prison security problems
Defining a Gang
• Traditional prison gangs of 1960s and 1970s
consisted of adult criminals who were organized into
hierarchies with rank differentiation
• These prison gangs were efficient criminal
organizations
• Street gangs were social groups whose members
were younger inmates, with simple hierarchies, less
status differentiation, and less defined leadership
• Street gangs were less efficient criminal organizations
Defining a Gang (cont.)
• Today, the term security threat group (STG) is
used more often and applies to groups in
which:
– Affiliation is based on race, ethnicity, geography,
ideology, or a combination
– Members seek one another’s protection
– Economic objective, such as drug distribution, that
is linked to violence or threats of violence
• Power of STGs has been stifled in recent years
Gang Management Program
• Requires a comprehensive and holistic policy
that specifies legal precedents, procedures,
and guidelines
• Strong policy should include:
– Statement of institution’s philosophy on gang
management
– Operational definition of STG that fits institution’s
management plan, culture, and climate
– Established list of ground rules in gang
investigations and prosecutions
Gang Management Program (cont.)
• Well-managed program links gang
classification and intelligence gathering to
institution security and inmate programs
• Identify strategies to prevent new inmates
from participating in gang activities
• Allow current members a way out of STGs
• Develop zero tolerance culture for gang
activity
• Encourage participation in other activities
Gang Management Program (cont.)
• Role of Prison Staff
– Paperwork and procedures are straightforward
– Staff become “gang detectives” while trying to
deal with human resources of gangs
– Selecting qualified personnel is most important
step
– Need to carefully screen all potential applicants to
the institution for gang ties
Gang Management Program (cont.)
• Curbing Communication Networks
– Keep logs of STG members’ visitors, monitor
telephone calls and mail, stay in touch with local
police agencies
– Require inmates to obtain permission to send
letters to inmates at different correctional
institutions
Social Control
• Ensure that minor problems are addressed
appropriately
• Social and physical environment can influence
inmates’ behavior
• Withdrawing inmate incentives and using
lockdown is a gamble
• Super-maximum facilities can be effective with
the most violent offenders
• Housing can play an important role in
controlling STGs
Intelligence and Data Collection
• Improved surveillance, improved layout, and
sophisticated intelligence-gathering strategies
have curtailed prison gangs’ rackets
• Key to gang intelligence is continuously
updating data
• Staff should maintain local and national ties
with gang units and attend training on gang
intelligence
Intelligence and Data Collection (cont.)
• STG management is job of all employees
• Gangs are social groups
• Staff must be familiar with gang tattoos,
graffiti, and symbols
• Data must be well-organized and carefully
analyzed once gathered
Conclusion
• Proactive defense against gang expansion will
include the development of a comprehensive
institution management system to encourage
inmates’ cooperation and participation in
programs
• Challenge of curbing STG growth will best be
met with modern crime intelligence
techniques and good planning
Chapter 33
Special Needs Offenders
Objectives
• Describe the variety and prevalence of
physical and mental health issues present in a
prison population
• Outline the challenges posed by inmates with
disabilities or special needs
• Identify some of the measures that
institutions must take to manage inmates with
special needs effectively
Introduction
• Special needs offenders are those with
unusual or unique requirements stemming
from
– Physical or mental age
– Physical impairment
– Terminal illness
– Chronic medical condition
– Mental illness
– Mental retardation
Special Needs Classification
• Physical impairments are defined as severe mobility,
visual, hearing, and speech limitations
• Mentally ill are those with any diagnosed disorder in
DSM
• Mental retardation is having less than normal
intelligence, usually IQ < 70
• Terminally ill have a fatal illness and less than 6
months to live
• Geriatric offenders are those over the age of 65,
although some institutions use 50 as the cut off
Prevalence
• Midyear 2005, more than 50% of state and
federal inmates suffered from a mental health
problem
• Estimates are that the number of mentally
retarded persons in prison is two or three
times greater than in the community
Identifying Those with
Special Needs
• Intake is often conducted at a separate facility
with a reception and diagnostic unit
• Medical screening should identify any medical
or mental health concerns that need
immediate attention
Protocols for Care
• Each correctional facility should develop
written policies and procedures that are
consistent with the ADA
• ADA does provide for exclusion from a program
if a disabled inmate presents a direct threat to
the health and safety of others
Segregation or Mainstreaming?
• Reasons for separating special needs
offenders
– Cost containment
– Managed care
– Concentration of resources
• Mainstreaming is basic premise of ADA
• Combination of mainstreaming and
segregation should provide services well for
inmates with disabilities
Access and Communication
• ADA does not require that all existing facilities
be modified to new standards, although new
construction should definitely conform to ADA
standards
• Alternate methods of program delivery
satisfies “access” requirement
• Communication with special needs offenders
should be as effective as with other inmates
Access and Communication (cont.)
• Program and Activity Availability
– Some prison industry tasks can be brought to the
housing unit
– Tutors can come to the living unit
– Mentally ill and mentally retarded inmates may
require segregation in specialized unit
– Major focus of units is therapy
– Partnerships with community agencies will help
supply services for offenders.
Classification Considerations
• Most classification systems consider risk factors such
as prior convictions, current convictions, escapes or
attempted escapes, length of sentence, institutional
adjustment, age, education level, history of
substance abuse, history of violence
• Provision for override allows staff to factor in
information on medical and mental health conditions
• Disability should be among many factors considered
in classification decisions
Housing Accommodations
• Should be housed on ground level near the
officers’ stations
• In a monitored observation cell
• Alternate types of aids may be provided
Special Facilities
• Physical plant modifications may be needed
with older construction
• Distinct colors between floors and walls will
assist visually impaired
• Separate meal shift can be established for
special needs inmates who need more time or
assistance
Special Support
• Assistance may be required with activities of
daily living
• Inmates can be trained as caregivers
• Training should be provided prior to beginning
work and should be offered on a scheduled
basis
Hospice and Palliative Care
• Usually terminally ill inmates are placed in a
facility with the highest level of medical care
available
• Treatment concentrates on palliative care
• Hospice programs may utilize other offenders
Reentry
• Reentry should begin the day the offender
enters the correctional system
• Community agencies should serve as partners
to provide services during incarceration and
after release
• Detailed planning should start 6-8 months
before the special needs offender is released
Staff Development
• All staff should be provided with relevant
training and development
• Staff should be encouraged to participate in
professional and special interest groups in the
community for education and professional
growth
• Partnerships should be developed with
community service providers
Tips for Working with Special Needs
Offenders
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Move more slowly than normal
Talk directly to the inmates
Address conversation to the inmates
Talk at face level
Speak clearly in a low tone
Use terms that the inmate can understand
Simplify instructions
Establish and maintain a familiar routine
Tips for Working with Special Needs
Offenders (cont.)
•
•
•
•
•
Talk in positive terms
Be patient
Be flexible and creative in programming
Use large type
Utilize the public address system for
announcing changes and to read memoranda
concerning changes
• Ensure that inmates eat properly
Conclusion
• Growing number of special needs inmates are
having an impact on US correctional system
• Administrators need to ensure they meet
relevant laws and ADA standards
• Staff should partner with local service
providers
Chapter 34
Sex Offenders
Objectives
• Provide examples of different types of sex
offenders
• Explain why the identification of sex offenders
is often a difficult task
• Outline components of a viable sex offender
treatment program
Magnitude of the Problem
• Many factors contribute to lack of reliable data:
– Embarrassment, fear, or self-blame from victims
may deter reporting
– Authorities overlook sexual behavior that the public
seems to condone
– Large number of offenders are not convicted or
plead guilty to a lesser charge
– Only convicted sex offenders appear in sex crime
statistics
Magnitude of the Problem (cont.)
• Definition of sexual offenses changes in
different states
• As of 2005, there were over 600,000 registered
sex offenders
• Rapists were 10.5 times more likely to be
rearrested for rape than other released
prisoners
• Many sex offenders repeat their behavior upon
release from custody
Basic Approach to Sex Offender
Management
• Institutions must focus on correctly identifying
sex offenders as soon as possible after
incarceration
• Should be separated from general population as
soon as possible
• Special housing unit should be placed in an
institution with a progressive, open-minded
administration
Classification
• Sex offenders frequently attempt to hide their
offense
• Classification staff need to convince offenders
that a complete reporting of activities is
beneficial
• Should schedule a follow-up interview if
offender is not providing necessary
information
• Staff should not condone behavior, but
acknowledge its occurrence
Staff Issues
• Should have staff trained in dealing with sex offenders
who are realistic and mature
• Enough personnel should be available to give
individual attention to program participants
• Total communication and cooperation are needed to
monitor progress and make important decisions
• If professionals trained in sex offender treatment are
not available, it may be best to defer implementation
of the program
Evaluating and Admitting Sex
Offenders
• All identified sex offenders should be given the
opportunity to participate in the program
• Must volunteer for treatment
• Offender must complete very extensive
questionnaires regarding their background and
sexual behavior
• Psychological tests vary, but include assessment of
personality, cognitive ability, social attitudes, and
sexual thoughts
Treatment Program
• Combination of cognitive behavior treatment
and relapse prevention
• Many programs include anger management and
social and interpersonal skill development
• Participants should accept that their deviant
sexual behavior is inappropriate
• Offender should be assigned a lead therapist to
coordinate the treatment plan
Treatment Program (cont.)
• Key groups include:
– Focus on basic deviant behavior, including
offenses, victims, background, sexual thoughts
and actions
– Abuse and its ramifications on offenders’ lives
– Anger management
– Social skills
– Sex education
– Substance abuse
– Final mandatory part is relapse prevention
Transition to the Community
• Regardless of success in treatment, staff must
also prepare for reentry
• Offenders should seek out socially approved
support groups, positive recreational
activities, other community assistance
• Staff should ensure they are aware of required
sex offender registration
Conclusion
• Sex offenders who take responsibility for their
behavior, discuss their past offenses openly,
understand why their deviant acts were
wrong, exhibit genuine remorse, and actively
work in the treatment programs to acquire
relapse prevention skills will pose less of a
danger to the community than they did before
their arrival
Chapter 35
Visitation
Objectives
• Explain the benefits and drawbacks of
visitation in a prison setting
• Identify the challenges presented to
institution security by the inmate visiting
program
• Outline the role that visitations play in
successful prison and jail administration
Benefits
• Prisoners who have maintained contact with
supportive individuals have a safety net upon
release
• Incentive for good behavior
• Bonding experience with children can help
continue a healthy relationship
Potential Risks
• Visitors are a primary pipeline for smuggling
drugs and contraband
• Significant numbers of staff are needed to
supervise visits and search visitors
• May attempt to use visiting program to make
contact with new crime partners
• Sensitivity training and professionalism are
essential for staff
Rules and Regulations
• Detailed visiting information should be sent to
visitors in advance
• Searches are imposed to protect against
introduction of contraband to facility
• May include body cavity searches, strip
search, pat down, metal detectors, x-ray
• Violations of rules may result in termination of
visit, suspension, and/or removal from
approved visiting list
Visitation List
• Prohibitions from visiting list include known
felons, former inmates, parolees,
probationers, vendors, and volunteers
• Number, frequency, and duration of visits are
limited by space, personnel, security
• Only 6 states allow conjugal visits
• Some agencies attempt to make the visitation
area child-friendly
• A positive visit with a child can facilitate
bonding and parenting
Visitation List (cont.)
• In determining appropriateness of including
children, one should consider:
– Effects of visit on mother and child when visit
ends
– Feelings of other inmates
– Effects on child of prison environment
– Effects of separating children from their mother
while they are in prison
Visitation List (cont.)
• ACA requires that provisions be made to
ensure attorney-client confidentiality
• Includes telephone communication,
correspondence, and visits
• High risk prisoners are often restricted to non
contact visits, handcuffs, etc.
Role of the Community
• Specialized bus companies may offer regular
charters to prisons from large cities
• Motels, restaurants, and gas stations benefit
from patronage of visitors
Facility Design
• Visiting room should be neat and clean, have
adequate light and ventilation, and separate
lavatories for inmates and visitors
Conclusion
• Regular contact with visitors significantly
enhances an inmate’s quality of life and
establishes a lifeline with the free community
• Ties with family members, friends, and other
loved ones are critical to an inmates’
successful return to the community.