chapter
6
Parks in Canada
and
the United States
Stephen M. Holland and Paul F.J. Eagles
Overview of
History of Parks in Canada
• Present the current “state of parks” in
Canada.
• Review the history of the major park
systems.
• Outline each major system.
SPECIAL NOTE: As of 2003, Canada had 5,299
parks and protected areas covering 245 million
acres (99 million hectares) of land, equaling 10% of
the entire country.
History of Parks in Canada
• Canada is composed of 10 provinces and 3
territories formed in confederation in
1867.
• Provinces retained power over the ownership and
management of all crown land.
– Conversely, it was difficult for the federal government to create
parks within provinces, because this required provincial
cooperation.
– Some provincial park systems in Canada are as large and
prominent as the national park system.
(continued)
History of Parks in Canada
(continued)
• The first parks were created in cities and
were strongly influenced by the British
examples of large green central parks in
London, England.
• The Halifax Common is recognized as the
first designated park in Canada.
• In 1859, Toronto was first to formally create
urban parks and a public agency to manage
these parks (McFarland, 1982).
Evolution and Growth
Government actions in the 1880s at Niagara
set precedents in 3 important areas:
1. Established first regional park and first stand-alone
park management agency with its own legislation
and mandate in Canada.
2. Actions stimulated creation of future parks.
3. Actions set a tone of American–Canadian
cooperation in park management.
(continued)
Evolution and Growth (continued)
• In 1880s, established Canada’s first national crosscountry railway through the Rocky Mountains.
Tourism potential quickly recognized.
• Established Rocky Mountain Park, first national
park in 1887 (later renamed Banff National Park).
• In 1887, first wildlife conservation reserve was
created at Last Mountain Lake in the Northwest
Territories, now Saskatchewan (Foster, 1978).
This national government activity started the federal
government of Canada in the parks business.
People Important to Canadian Parks
• Sir Sandford Fleming of the Canadian Pacific Railway
proposed a series of national parks across Canada for
the purpose of creating tourism demand and railway
use.
• Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and Fleming are
central figures in the creation of Canada’s first national
park in 1885, now known as Banff National Park.
• Edgar Dewdney created the first wildlife reserve and
bird sanctuary in North America.
• Alexander Kirkwood lobbied for the creation of a
national forest and park in Ontario.
(continued)
People Important to Canadian Parks
(continued)
• James Harkin, in 1911, became the first
director of the Parks Branch. This action
created the first national park management
agency in the world.
• Fleming, Macdonald, Dewdney, Kirkwood,
and Harkin set in motion ideas that resulted in
the creation of Canada’s national and provincial
park systems.
Park Systems of Canada
• City parks:
– Occur in every village, town, and city. Focus on
recreation, health, and conservation of natural lands.
– Responsibility for facility construction, maintenance, and
programs. Advisory groups and volunteers are used.
– Most municipal park management is paid for by land
taxes.
• Regional parks:
– Fulfill conservation and recreation mandates.
– Conservation areas are close to large cities for nearurban outdoor recreation.
(continued)
Park Systems of Canada (continued)
• Provincial parks:
– Every province and territory in Canada has a park
system.
– Size and use of the system varies based on land
acquired and size of province.
• National parks and wildlife areas:
– Parks Canada is responsible for 4 major park and
reserve systems: (1) national parks and reserves, (2)
national historic parks and sites, (3) national canals, and
(4) national marine sanctuaries.
– The national park system is very large, highly popular,
well funded, and growing. Canada has 40 national parks
and national park reserves.
Overview of History of Parks
in the United States
• Parks developed out of concern for the
social and psychological well-being of
children and citizens.
• Conservation and preservation of natural
areas became important as the country
developed and resource extraction and
urbanization accelerated.
• The evolution of natural areas as attractions
spurred tourism opportunities.
City Parks and Playgrounds
1850s–1920
Parallel to increased consciousness of the
need to protect larger, usually forested, areas
was a developing awareness of the need for
public parks in the bustling, immigrant-filled,
increasingly congested, and hygienically
challenged cities:
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Boston
New York
Chicago
Philadelphia
Federal Conservation Initiatives
Begin in the 1800s
• First national park in the world, Yellowstone,
designated by President Grant in 1872 in the
territories of Montana and Wyoming.
– Made possible by the incredible confluence of natural
features.
– Supported by citizens, Hedges, Langford, Hayden,
Washburn, and Folsom, who led expeditions from 1869
through 1871.
• Northern Pacific Railroad understood the park’s
potential to attract tourists (Runte, 1998).
• Seed idea of designating national parks was sown.
Federal Conservation Initiatives
1900–1925
President Theodore Roosevelt’s initiatives
launched federal leadership in
conservation. In less than 8 years as
president he accomplished the following:
• Created U.S. Forest Service.
• Set aside 148 million acres (60 million hectares)
as national forests, some of those against the
wishes of powerful senators and timber
interests.
• Established first federal wildlife refuge (Pelican
Island, FL).
• Created 6 national parks.
State Park Initiatives 1880–1925
• Creating a park every 100 miles (161 km)—
the distance that automobiles of that time
could typically travel in a day—for the
public to enjoy and camp in was suggested
as an opportunity appropriate for state
parks to fulfill (Landrum, 2004).
• State parks were to serve as outdoor
recreation areas not too far from home for
their citizens and tourists (Landrum, 2004).
Trail Initiatives 1930s and 1960s
Native American, wagon train, and cattle drive trails
are an important part of American history.
• The approximately 2,150-mile (3,460-km)
Appalachian Trail was completed in 1937.
• National Trails Systems Act of 1968 designated the
Appalachian Trail and Pacific Crest Trail, approx.
2,350 miles (3,782 km) from the Mexican to
Canadian border along the mountain ranges of the
Pacific C
oast states, as national scenic trails.
• The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 was signed
by President Lyndon Johnson. For the first time
protected status was provided to free-flowing (not
dammed) rivers, thereby assuring that white-water
recreational opportunities were protected.
Trail Initiatives 1980s and 1990s
• President Reagan’s Commission on American
Outdoors (1987) recommended that communities
and states promote “corridor” parks.
• Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
(ISTEA) of 1991 provided funding for alternative
transportation routes, such as bicycle trails. The
rails-to-trails movement and other local trailoriented programs resulted in thousands of shorter
walkways, bicycle and skateboard trails, and hiking
trails in or near urban areas. They also connected
urban areas or previously unconnected parks.
Wilderness 1930s–1970s
• “Americans were loving their parks to
death.”
– 1930s. Declaring an area as protected virtually
assured that roads would be built to and within that
park, and eventually thousands of people would visit
it and the characteristics of “wilderness” would be
diminished or lost.
– 1960s. Congested roads and campgrounds became
the norm.
(continued)
Wilderness 1930s–1970s (continued)
• The Wilderness Act of 1964, signed by
President Lyndon Johnson, created areas in
which development, roads, timber removal, and
motorized activities were permanently
prohibited.
• President Carter signed the Endangered
American Wilderness Act of 1978 and the 1980
Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation
Act.
• All three of these acts were politically
controversial.
City Parks
City parks, by definition, are owned,
managed, and staffed by the city
government they are located in, although
there are exceptions. The original mandate
for city parks was to provide play areas for
children that provided the following:
• Islands of hope
• Greenery
• Escape from urban crowding, congestion,
and concrete
(continued)
City Parks (continued)
The following are characteristics of city parks:
• The natural resource base is altered, and
area is artificially landscaped or designed.
• The grounds are heavily modified to suit
whatever activity is desired, e.g., tennis
courts, golf courses, swimming pools,
fountains, paved walkways, rinks,
skateboard parks, and soccer fields.
• They may be used for day outings for innercity children to get their first taste of a
“natural” area.
Nonrecreational Role of Parks
• City parks are important in times of crisis,
such as wildfires, earthquakes, tornadoes,
or floods.
– They are widely used as food, shelter, and ice
distribution points.
– Information tables are set up in parks, and people
reunite with each other by meeting in parks.
• It has been said that there are no great
cities without great parks.
County, Regional,
Park Districts, and State Parks
• County parks:
– Intermediate in size and usage
– Oriented less to urban uses, but not as
environmentally sensitive, restrictive in usage, or as
large as state parks
• Regional parks:
– Intergovernmental cooperation often occurs, e.g., a
partnership between a city and county or between 2
or 3 counties
– Typically serve a population that lives in more than
one local county
(continued)
County, Regional, Park Districts,
and State Parks (continued)
• Park districts:
– Specially authorized areas with taxing authority that
function like a system of regional parks
– Don’t usually follow city or county boundaries
– Often with a city at the core
• State parks:
– Typically more resource oriented in order to keep the
area more natural
– Usually distant from urban population centers and
larger than most city or county parks
Federal Parks, Forests, and Refuges
The National Park Service (NPS) was established in
1916 under the Department of the Interior, which
establishes the policies and operating procedures
and maintains the character of “special places.”
The NPS mandates are as follows:
• Operates under a preservation principle and is
funded by the U.S. Congress.
• Manages areas that are of national or international
importance.
• Provides recreational opportunities that do little or no
permanent harm to the resource.
Forests and Grasslands
Wildlife Refuges
• The Forest Service (now called USDA Forest
Service) was created in 1905, and is an agency of
the Department of Agriculture.
– Manages lands mostly in western states and follows a
basic conservation philosophy.
– Mission is to achieve quality land management under the
sustainable multiple-use concept to meet the diverse
needs of people.
• The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) was
created in 1871 and is an agency of the Department
of the Interior. Its mission is to work with others to
conserve, protect, and enhance fish, wildlife, and
plants and their habitats for the continuing benefit
of the American people.
Resource Lands and Wilderness
• National resource lands are managed by the Bureau
of Land Management, an agency of the Department
of the Interior.
– BLM sustains the health, diversity, and productivity of the public
lands for the use and enjoyment of present and future
generations.
– Consists of 264 million acres (106 million hectares) of land,
about one-eighth of the land in United States.
• Wilderness areas were created by the 1964
Wilderness Act and the 1973 Eastern Wilderness Act.
– They are open to public for nonmotorized day or overnight
recreation.
– 106 million acres (43 million hectares) of Wilderness in 677 sites.
Army Corps of Engineers
Tennessee River Valley
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Waterways
are water resources and related projects
that are managed by the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers. There are 2,500 recreation areas
at 463 projects.
• The Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)
manages water resources in 7 states:
Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, Kentucky,
Mississippi, North Carolina, and Virginia.
Large Western Reservoirs
Indian Reservations
• In 1902, Teddy Roosevelt established the Bureau of
Reclamation, a part of the Department of the Interior,
to manage water resources in the arid West. It plays
a major role in providing water recreation
opportunities to the western United States.
• The Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) manages 55.7
million acres (22.5 million hectares) of land held in
trust by the United States for American Indians,
Indian tribes, and Alaska natives. It is part of the
Department of the Interior.
– Most land is in Arizona, New Mexico, Montana, and South
Dakota, although 31 states have some Native American
lands.
– There are 562 recognized tribal governments in the
United States.
Coastal Areas
• Sandy beaches, barrier islands, and salt marsh wetlands
are some of the most heavily used natural resources in
the world and the United States. Approximately 50% of the
American public lives within 100 miles of a coast.
• Coastal areas are multiple-use areas where the same
short stretch of coast may be used for:
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Commercial fishing
Shore-based outdoor recreation
Water-based outdoor recreation
Private homes or resorts
Restaurants and bars
Ice-cream stands or umbrella rental stands
Cruise ship and commercial shipping routes
Wildlife management and military defense (and on the east coast
of Florida, you can add the NASA spaceport to potential uses, at
times)
National Marine Sanctuaries
Ocean Fishing
• 13 marine sanctuaries protect 18,618 square
miles (4,8221 sq km) of ocean and coasts.
• Deep-sea fishing occurs in “state waters,”
which are closer to shore, and also in
exclusive economic zones, which are farther
away from shore.
• National Marine Fisheries Service assesses
and predicts the status of fish stocks and
ensures compliance with regulations.
International Peace Parks
The term International Peace Park has been used
in two ways:
1. Transboundary protected areas located in more than
one country, largely created to facilitate the movement of
wildlife and birds in order to protect a certain type of
ecosystem; e.g., the Waterton-Glacier International
Peace Park World Heritage Site, located in Alberta,
Canada and Montana, in the United States.
2. Parks located entirely in one country, but designated as
a site to memorialize and celebrate a goal of peace
between citizens of specific or all nations.
Similarities Between Canada
and the United States
• Both are geographically large with a similar
federated form of administration with 3 levels of
government developing parks.
• Cultural roots in England.
• As park movement deepened, ongoing
communication of ideas between two countries
moved back and forth over a 200-year period.
• Both were a major influence on the types and
forms of park management that developed in
many other countries.
Differences Between Canada
and the United States
One of the major differences between parks in both
countries is the constitutional structure dealing
with land ownership.
• In the United States the federal government owns all
public land. Management institutions and reserve
types are more diverse in the United States.
• In Canada the provincial governments own all crown
land within provinces. Within the territories, the
federal government holds crown land.
• The provincial park systems in Canada are much
larger and more fully developed than the state parks
systems in the United States.
Career Opportunities
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National park services
Forest services
Fish and wildlife services
Bureau of Land Management or state and local equivalents
Entrepreneurial outdoor leadership small-business
opportunities
Resorts as a staff naturalist
Commercial theme parks
Summer camps
Year-round ski resorts
Bed and breakfasts
Park or beach concessionaire businesses
Marinas and tour boat operations
Outdoor equipment stores
Challenges for Parks: 21st Century
• Shortage of funding and population increases
• Inadequate number of rangers or staff to maintain facilities,
manage resources, and serve the public
• Encroachment of private land development on park borders
• Temptation to use public park lands for public services, such
as roads, power lines, cell-phone towers, and pipelines
• Environmental threats from outside the park, such as
polluted river water originating in a populated area, or air
pollution generated outside a park that spoils the fresh air
and views expected in a park
• Vandalism, drug use, public sexual behavior, crime, and
gang activity in urban parks that make many afraid to visit
• Inappropriate motorized use, such as snowmobiles,
personal watercraft, and off-road vehicles, that scars fragile
lands and harasses wildlife