Chapter Ten
The Organization and Funding
of Schools
School Organization Today
 Hierarchical
Model (Top
Down)
 Concentric
Ring Model
Hierarchical Model of School
Organization
 Most
models are hierarchical (top-down)
 These schemes picture the state
legislature, school board, and other
administrative structure as layers “above”
the local school.
 Teachers are depicted at the bottom, often
placed “below” the school custodian and
secretary.
Concentric Ring Model of School
Organization
 The Concentric
Ring Model
demonstrates the
central role of the
teacher in the
organizational
scheme.
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It may help to
emphasize the
importance of
teachers in the
structure of modern
education.
Professional Relationships in
Education: Line and Staff
 Line
relationships represent the direct
authority of one individual to another such
as the principal’s relationship to you.
 Staff relationships are less formal and
have no supervisory or evaluation
component, such as the department chair,
team leader or mentor.
Educational Administration
 The
Federal Government
 The State Government
 The Local School District
 The Local School
Federal Government Administration

Local communities and states traditionally
maintained a great deal of power regarding
education.
 During the 1800s, schools gradually came under
the authority of the states, although local
communities continued to play a major role.
 By the twentieth century, some control of
schools gradually began to shift to the national
level.
Direct Federal Control
 The
U.S. Congress directly funds and
administers the schools in the nation’s
capitol, Washington D.C.
 The Federal Government controls schools
attended by children…
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of National Park employees
living in “outlying possessions”
on Indian reservations
on military bases
U.S. Department of Education: A
Short History

In 1867, the first Department of Education was
established by an act of Congress.
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Assisted with the important work of the Freedmen’s Bureau
schools.
Collected statistics to document the progress of education.
In 1868, the Department of Education was “downgraded”
to the status of an “Office” within the Department of
Interior.
 In 1939 the office was reassigned to the Federal Security
Agency, that later (1953) was renamed the Department
of Health, Education, and Welfare.
 The Office of Education remained here until 1979 when it
achieved cabinet level status as the Department of
Education.

The Role of the U.S. Department of
Education
 Funding
 Advocacy
 Research
Department of Education: Funding
 Provides
categorical financial aid for
bilingual education, vocational education,
disabilities education and programs such
as anti-drug education and head start.
 It
also allocates funds for student financial
aid for college.
Department of Education:
Advocacy
 Some
programs are promoted through the
authority of the Secretary of the
Department of Education
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Privatization
Voucher plans
School choice
 The
President of the United States has
used his power to influence educational
policy (NCLB).
Department of Education:
Research
 Regional
Resource Centers and
Educational Laboratories inform educators
of cutting edge research through
seminars, workshops and conferences.
 National Centers, Clearinghouses, and
Regional Assistance Centers provide
training and technical assistance to
improve teaching and learning.
The State Administration

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State Governors, Legislatures, and the Courts shape
general school policy through statues (laws) and they
proscribe the duties of other educational units such as
the state board of education.
State Boards of Education provide advisory and
regulatory functions regarding education and define
standards for teacher credentialing and licensure.
State Departments of Education typically regulate the
certification requirements of teachers, maintain school
bus schedules and administer special programs for the
state.
Duties of the State Board of
Education
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Regulate school curriculum
Make school attendance policy
Establish teacher licensure requirements
Implement policy mandated by the state
legislature
Make policy recommendations to the state
legislature
Monitor teacher education programs
Evaluate school test data
State Department of Education
(or State Department of Public
Instruction)

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Implement and monitor state-wide testing programs
Review teachers’ credentials and issue teaching
licenses
Establish curriculum guidelines and standards
Conduct training sessions for teachers and
administrators
Approve teacher education programs and teacher
specialty areas
Approve new Charter Schools
Implement new initiatives such as the NCLB
The State Superintendent
 The
chief school executive officer of the
state.
 Works directly with the State Board of
Education on educational policy.
 Ultimate arbiter of educational policy.
The School District
 Typically
operates at the municipal (city),
township, or county level.
 Has its own school board and
administration.
Functions of the District Board
of Education
 Funding
 Maintenance
 Property
and Construction
 Materials and Supplies
 Curriculum and Programs
 Hiring of teachers
 Admission and Regulation of Students
The District Superintendent
 Provides
leadership and is often the
spokesperson for the local board.
 Attends to the day-to-day operations of the
school district.
 Oversees the school budget and deals
with controversial issues.
Local School Administration
 Local
schools attend to the day-to-day
business of education.
 Provides the basic administrational
structure that governs the teachers and
students.
The Principal’s Responsibilities

Selects teachers for his or her school.
 Evaluates teachers.
 Allocates funds from the school budget.
 Coordinates special support staff services
(i.e., school counselors, school psychologists,
social workers, nurses, etc.) for teachers and
students.
 Maintains the school facilities and grounds
and coordinates the maintenance staff.
 Coordinates curriculum and instruction in the
school.
The Principal’s Responsibilities
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(Continued)
Schedules classes, teachers and room
assignments.
Supervises office staff.
Acts as the chief disciplinarian.
Schedules special events such as athletic games,
open houses, parent conferences, and holiday
concerts.
Serves as a mediator between teachers and parents
in case of conflict.
Serves as a liaison between the school and the
PTA.
Coordinates and schedules testing.
Duties of the Assistant Principal
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Schedules classes and classrooms
Orders supplies and textbooks
Arranges the cafeteria schedule
Handles discipline
Schedules the use of special school facilities
such as the gym, athletic fields computer labs, or
library
 Coordinates school testing and assessment
 Monitors student attendance
 Budgets school funds
School Support Staff
 School
Secretary
 Custodians
 Cafeteria Workers
The Funding of Schools
 Schools
are funded with tax revenues from
federal, state, and local governments.
 Revenues are distributed by governmental
agencies to local school districts.
 While this financial scheme may appear to
be simple and fair, it is neither.
Federal Aid

The federal government has traditionally played
a minor role in the funding of schools.
 However, prior to the adoption of the
Constitution it actively supported public
education through the provisions of the
Northwest Ordinance.
 Under the ordinance a portion of land was to be
used for public education.
 As a result local communities were able to
establish and support public schools.
Federal aid to Education is
Controversial
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Opponents of federal involvement in education argue
that it is unconstitutional, noting the provisions set forth
in the Tenth Amendment.
Those who favor a greater role for the federal
government, note that the most important function of
government as outlined in the Preamble to the
Constitution is to “promote the general welfare” of the
people and that there is no better way to achieve that
goal than by supporting public education.
States and local school districts are held accountable for
their use of this federal money. It is this accountability
that is sometimes resented by school administrators.
State Funding of Schools

States typically rely on sales taxes and income
taxes and lotteries to help fund their schools.
 Income taxes are “progressive” because they
are graduated according to ones ability to pay.
 Sales taxes are “regressive” because the poor
must pay a larger proportion of their income on
the sales tax of food or clothing than do the rich.
 Recently, states have used lotteries as a new
source of revenue – though these funds must be
carefully monitored.
Local Tax Revenues- Property
Taxes
 Property
taxes have been the primary
source of funding for schools for many
years.
 These taxes are a stable source of income
but are often assessed unevenly.
 Artificially low tax bases can dramatically
effect the funding of public schools in the
community.
Rich and Poor Communities

Even if tax rates in poor communities were
assessed at their maximum level, revenues
would still be dramatically lower than more
developed, richer communities.
 Although this may seem unfair, the Supreme
Court argued in San Antonio v Rodriguez (1973)
that it was the state’s responsibility to remedy
these problems of inequity.
 This remains one of the central complications of
the current system of financing education.
The Future of Educational
Finance
 The
current system of financing public
schools is troubling.
 Since 1973, the courts have grappled with
public school finance and often have found
it unfair.
 As a result, school systems have
embraced equity and adequacy reforms.
School Finance Equity Reforms

In Serrano v Priest (1971) the California
Supreme Court declared that the state’s system
of school finance was unconstitutional.
 As a result of this decision, a number of states
embraced school equity programs that
redirected some money from richer to poorer
school districts.
 One of the most successful of these school
equity programs was implemented in Kentucky
(KERA).
School Finance Adequacy
Reform
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As a result of the Serrano decision, other states
have moved cautiously toward so-called adequacy
reform.
These “reforms” provides a minimum or “foundation
level” of funding for each student in the state.
However, funding levels are often well below the
minimum expenses for education today.
A good example of this funding “reform” can be seen
in the New Jersey Supreme Court case of Abbott v
Burke.
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The court mandated that the state spend significantly
more money on these 28 failing school districts,
known as “Abbott districts.”
New Directions in School
Financing: Sales Tax

Michigan has recently presented us with a third
alternative beyond equity or adequacy reform.
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This funding compromise involved a shift away from
the traditional reliance on property taxes to fund
schools toward the broader use of state sales taxes
for schools.
By using state sales tax revenues as the primary
source of school funding, property taxes were
reduced and inequities caused by rich and poor
school districts were minimized.
New Directions in School
Financing: Other Approaches
 Some
school districts have turned to
advertising as a source of revenue.
 Still other schools have used student fees
for busing, parking, etc.
 Many communities borrow money for
education by issuing bonds.
Homeschooling and Vouchers

In the last thirty years, since the famous Gideon v
Wainwright Supreme Court decision declared that
mandatory prayer in public schools was unconstitutional,
many conservative groups have advocated
homeschooling where their values can freely be taught.
 Others have embraced vouchers where state or federal
money would be allocated to each family to use for the
education of their children.
 In 1998, the Supreme Court argued that Milwaukee’s
voucher plan was unconstitutional and as a result, could
not be used for religious schools.
 Today, the majority of the American people support the
traditional public school system and parents oppose
private school choice plans by a margin of 2 to 1.
Privatization of Public Schools
 Privatization
plans essentially turn over the
public schools to a private company.
 These “for profit” school businesses
receive funding from the state and district
and keep the profits they make.
 This transfers money – designated for
public schools – to private institutions and
reduces revenues for public education.