IAEA Post Graduate Educational Course in Radiation Protection and Safety of Radiation Sources
PART IX: EMERGENCY EXPOSURE SITUATIONS
Module IX.1: Generic requirements for
emergency exposure situations
Lecture IX. 1.1: Introduction to the
emergency exposure situations
Lecture
Objective
To become familiar with:
1. the emergency exposure situations,
2. the difference between emergency
preparedness and emergency
response and
3. scope of requirements for
emergency exposure situations.
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Content
1.
What is a radiological emergency?
2.
What is emergency exposure situation?
3.
Examples of radiological emergency situations
4.
What is Emergency Preparedness and
Response?
5.
Scope of Requirements for emergency
exposure situations
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What is a radiological emergency?

A radiological emergency is an emergency in
which there is, or is perceived to be, a hazard
due to radiation exposure from a source.

As sources of radiation are used in various
fields, including industry, medicine and
research, radiological emergencies may
occur anywhere.
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What is emergency exposure situation?



is a situation of exposure that arises as a result
of an accident, a malicious act, or any other
unexpected event, and requires prompt action in
order to avoid or to reduce adverse
consequences.
Preventive actions and mitigatory actions have
to be considered before an emergency
exposure situation arises.
Once an emergency exposure situation actually
occurs, exposures can be reduced only by
implementing protective actions.
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Examples of radiological emergency
situations

These are examples of radiological
emergency situations and associated
conditions that may facing:

Medical Symptoms of Radiation Exposure
Loss or Theft of Dangerous Radioactive Source
Public Radioactive Contamination/Exposure
Transport emergency involving radioactive
materials
Detection of Elevated Radiation Levels

Presence of Radiological Dispersal Device (RDD)
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Medical symptoms of radiation
exposure


Many radiological emergencies are first
identified through medical examinations of
persons that have been exposed to radiation.
A physician should consider the possibility of
radiation induced injures when facing burns
without an apparent cause, suspicions
expressed by the patient that some 'object' was
making them sick, or a patient being in a
profession where there is an increased risk of
encountering a dangerous source (e.g. scrap
metal dealer).
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Hazards:

The patient could be suffering from radiation
injuries warranting specialized treatment.

Furthermore, the discovery of symptoms of
radiation exposure could indicate a public
radioactive contamination or exposure
emergency, and the source of exposure or
contamination could continue to represent a
severe hazard unknown to those in the
vicinity.
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Loss or theft of a dangerous source

Sources containing sufficient radioactive
material to qualify as dangerous are used for
various purposes, both industrial and medical.


Even though safety and security provisions are
put in place to prevent such sources from
being lost or stolen, such events occur and
constitute radiological emergencies.
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Hazards:

It must be assumed that the source may be in
the possession of people who may not know its
nature and hazard, who can handle it, break it
and spread contamination.

Unknowingly handling unshielded\ unconfined
dangerous quantities of radioactive material
can result in permanent injuries from external
exposure or inadvertent ingestion and in
localized contamination, requiring cleanup.
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Public radioactive contamination or
exposure



Radioactive contamination of the public or of
public places could occur as the result of
members of the public, unaware of the hazard,
handling a lost or stolen dangerous source.
Contamination could also occur as the result of
a deliberate act.
These emergencies are often discovered,
unfortunately, after several people have been
exposed and there has been considerable
spread of radioactive material.
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Hazards:



Contaminated or exposed individuals could
suffer radiation injuries warranting specialized
treatment.
The source of exposure or contamination
could represent a severe hazard unsuspected
by those in the vicinity.
The material could be further dispersed by
human activity and could involve widespread
contamination of areas and local products.
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Hazards (cont.):

If public and financial institution concerns are
not promptly addressed, there can be
significant adverse and inappropriate public
reaction and economic consequences.

Limited stays (minutes) near the material by
response personnel should not be hazardous
but holding the material could produce
injuries in minutes.
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Transport emergency involving
radioactive material




Many thousands of transport operations occur
daily throughout the world in connection with
the use of radioactive materials.
All forms of transport are involved, including
road, rail, air and sea.
A transport accident involving radioactive
material can occur anywhere.
The transport of radioactive material is subject
to strict regulations that for example specify
standards for packages and their labeling.
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Hazards:


Transport emergencies involving correctly
packaged radioactive material, and where the
packages have not been damaged in the
accident, normally present no significant
radiological hazard.
Nevertheless, there is a small possibility of a
release resulting in an inhalation hazard near
the source, contamination that is hazardous if
ingested, and hazardous levels of external
exposure from being near the accident for an
extended time.
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Detection of elevated radiation levels


A detection of elevated radiation levels of
ambient radiation or radioactive contamination
in air, food/water or commercial products may
raise suspicion of an emergency situation of
actual, potential or perceived radiological
significance.
The origin of the contamination may be a facility
where radioactive material is handled, or it may
be an 'orphan source' that has ended up in
recycled scrap metal, but this is typically not
known at the time of discovery.
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Hazards:

Elevated radiation levels of unknown origin in
air/food/water/products resulting in significant
exposure of the public are very unlikely.

However, if the elevated radiation levels in air
or water are due to a significant release of
radioactive material from a facility where
radioactive material is handled, contamination
in excess of national and international
standards for permitted levels is possible.
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Detonation or discovery of an explosive
radiological dispersal device (RDD)

A radiological dispersal device (RDD) is a
device constructed by terrorists to spread
radioactive materials using conventional
explosives or other means.

The discovery of an RDD that has been or may
be used to spread contamination constitutes a
radiological emergency.
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Hazards:


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The greatest threat of an RDD comes from the
direct effects of an explosion rather than from
radiation exposure or contamination.
The greatest radiological hazard comes from
inadvertent inhalation or inadvertent ingestion
of the material dispersed by an explosion or fire
or from handling radioactive debris or material
in an unexploded device.
There would only be a negligible radiological
threat if less than dangerous quantities are
involved.
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So, WHAT is
Emergency Preparedness and Response?
EMERGENCY
PREPAREDNESS
AND RESPONSE
Module IX.1 Generic requirements for emergency exposure situations
Definitions
Emergency Procedures
 A set of instructions describing in detail the
actions to be taken by response personnel in
an emergency.
Emergency Response
 The performance of actions to mitigate the
consequences of an emergency for human
health and safety, quality of life, property and
the environment. It may also provide a basis
for the resumption of normal social and
economic activity.
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Objectives of Emergency Preparedness

To assure the capability to respond in a
timely, effective, appropriate and coordinated
manner to any nuclear or radiological
emergency at all levels:
 User or facility level
 Local level
 Regional level
 National level
 International level
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Objectives of Emergency Response

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To mitigate the consequences of an
emergency or event at its origin
To prevent the occurrence of deterministic
effects in individuals
To render first aid and to treat injuries
To reduce, using reasonable steps, the
occurrence of stochastic effects in the
population
To limit the occurrence of non-radiological
effects in individuals and in the population
To protect the environment and property
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Scope of Requirements for emergency
exposure situations
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Two sets of requirements
 Infrastructure (preparedness) requirements
 Functional (response) requirements
The infrastructure requirements must be fulfilled
to ensure that the functional requirements of a
response can be performed when needed.
The following slides outline those requirements.
They will be fully discussed in the following
Modules in this Part.
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Infrastructure Requirements
Quality assurance
and programme
maintenance
Organisation
Training, drills and
exercises
Response
objectives
Authority
Logistacal support
and facilities
Co-ordination
Plans and
procedures
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Functional Requirements
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Identification, Notification and Activation
Emergency Source Management
Urgent Protective Actions
Instructing and Warning the Public
Protection of Emergency Workers
Initial Phase Assessment
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Functional Requirements (cont’d)
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Emergency Operations Management
Medical Management
Informing the Public
Agricultural and Ingestion Countermeasures
and Longer Term Protective Actions
Mitigation of Public Non-Radiological
Consequences
Recovery
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Summary

Despite all the precautions that are taken in
the design and operation of nuclear facilities
and the conduct of nuclear activities, there
remains a possibility that a failure or an
accident may lead to an emergency .

Only good planning and sound preparedness
in advance of an emergency can substantially
improve the response.
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Where to Get More Information
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IAEA SAFETY STANDARDS, “Radiation Protection
and Safety of Radiation Sources”, Draft Safety
Requirements DS379 (Draft 5.0), International Basic
Safety Standards March 2011 Edition.
IAEA, “Manual for first responders to a radiological
emergency”, Emergency Preparedness and
Response Series EPR-FIRST RESPONDERS,
Vienna: IAEA, 2006.
IAEA Safety Standards, “Preparedness and
Response for a Nuclear or Radiological Emergency”,
SAFETY REQUIREMENTS, SERIES No. GS-R-2,
VIENNA, 2002..
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Burns

These pictures show examples of burns
caused by exposure to ionizing radiation.
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