Leadership
The act of influencing others to act toward
the achievement of a goal
 Process of providing direction, energizing,
others, and obtaining commitment to the
leaders cause
 Leadership involves informal power rather
than formal power

Power
Ability to influence others ideas, thoughts,
or behaviors
 Types of power

 Legitimate
 Reward
 Coercive
 Referent
 Expert
Legitimate Power
A result of formal position within an
organization
 Access to resources, information, and key
individuals in the organization
 Authority-right to command and decide
based upon position
 Outcomes?

Reward Power
Influence that results from leader’s ability
to satisfy needs
 I behave in a certain way because I feel
that the leader will provide me with some
reward (money, benefits, praise,
promotion, etc.)

Coercive Power
Influence through fear and punishment
 Demotions, firing, pay-cuts
 Outcomes??
 How do you train your dog?

Referent Power
Influence resulting from respect of the
leader
 Result of reputation, admiration, charisma,
or personal identification
 Outcomes??

Expert Power
Influence based on the possession of
specialized knowledge, skills, or expertise
 People who possess information about
your projects may exert expert power over
you.
 Outcomes??

15.2
Consequences of Using 5 Types of
Power
Type of power used by leader

Expert

Referent

Reward

Legitimate

Coercive
Most likely response from followers
Commitment
Compliance
Resistance
Adapted from Figure 15.1
Leadership Models
Trait models-focus on what characteristics
make for good leaders
 Behavioral models-what behaviors do
good leaders demonstrate
 Contingency models-matching of the
followers with the right type of leader

Trait Models
Physical-young middle aged, good
appearance JFK
 Social Background-right stock, education
 Personality-adaptable, achievement and
power needs, Type A, self confident, and
charismatic
 You either got ‘em or ya don’t

Behavior Models
Look at the actions of effective and
ineffective leaders
 Delegation skills
 Communication skills
 How roles of leadership are handled and
balanced
 The right ways can be taught and learned

McGregor’s Theory X and Y

Theory X
 People
are economic beings
 Generally lazy, and unmotivated
 People need a directive style of leadership

Theory Y
 People
are internally motivated
 Generally work hard, cooperate
 Work best with participative leadership style
Michigan State Studies
Likert 1961
 Two types of leaders

 Task
oriented-concerned with goals, structure,
and activities to meet ends
 Employee Oriented-concerned with social and
emotional needs of employees
Mutually Exclusive
 Task>greater prod. Employee>Happy

Ohio State Studies
Surveyed employees about their
supervisors
 Two styles of leadership

 Considerate-friendship,
mutual trust, and
respect
 Initiating Structure-production Centered

Outcomes of each??
Blake & Mouton Mgt. Grid

Five styles of leadership based on the
concerns of leaders for people or
production
 Impoverished-low
concern for both
 Country-club-high concern for people
 Produce or perish-high concern for production
 Middle of the road-medium concern for both
 Team style-high concern for both
15.4
The Managerial Grid Model
High
C
o
n
c
e
r
n
f
o
r
p
e
o
p
l
e
9
(1,9)
(9,9)
Country club style
Team style
8
7
6
(5,5)
5
4
Middle-of-the-road style
3
2 Impoverished style
(1,1)
11
2
3
4
5
Low 9
Low
6
Produce or
perish style
(9,1)
7
8
Concern for production
High
Source: R. R. Blake, J. S. Mouton,
and L. E. Greiner. Breakthrough in
organization development. Harvard
Business Review. NovemberDecember 1964
Adapted from Figure 15.3
Empowerment model
Leader shares influence and control with
followers
 Gives employees sense of meaning and
brings their hearts into the work
 Generally employees feel more satisfied
but....

 Not
all workers feel comfortable with the
responsibility
Contingency Models-how leader acts
w/various situational factors
Leader Member Exchange (conflict with
book)
 Fiedler’s Contingency Model
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Model
 House’s Path Goal Model
 Vroom & Jago’s Decision Tree

15.5
Situational Factors Influencing a Leader’s
Effectiveness
Maturity of
followers
Employee’s
needs
Traits
Core
Competencies
Task
structure
Decision
making
Types and
uses of
power
Leaderfollower
relations
Adapted from Figure 15.4
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Attempts to match leaders style to
demands of each situation
 Managers should

 understand
own leadership style
 assess the situation
 match style to situation
Change situation, or change
managers..can’t change manager’s style
 Used Least Preferred Coworker

Fiedler’s Model
 Situation
characteristic: how favorable a
given situation is for leading to occur.
Leader-member relations: determines how much
workers like and trust their leader.
 Task structure: extent to which workers tasks are
clear-cut.



Clear issues make a situation favorable for leadership.
Position Power: amount of legitimate, reward, &
coercive power a leader has due to their position.

When positional power is strong, leadership opportunity
becomes more favorable.
Fiedler’s Contingency Model
Figure 13.3
LeaderMember
Relations
GOOD
POOR
Task
Structure
HIGH
LO W
HIGH
Position
Power
S
S
W
S
W
S
III
IV
V
VI
VII
W
I
1
II
Kinds of
Leadership
Very
Situations Favorable
LOW
W
VIII
Very
Unfavorable
Relationship-oriented managers most effective in IV, V, VI, VII.
Task-oriented managers most effective in I, II, III or VIII.
Using Fiedler’s Model
Can combine leader-member relations, task
structure, and position power to identify
leadership situations.


Identifies situations where given types of managers
might perform best.
Seen in Figure 13.4.
 Leader
style is a characteristic managers
cannot change. Thus, managers will be most
effective when:
1) They are placed in leadership situations that suit
their style.
2) The situation can be changed to fit the manager.
Outcomes of Fielder
Matches task oriented to favorable and
unfavorable, and relationship oriented in
moderately favorable situations
 Limited by

 Little
attention to followers
 Manager’s can’t change their style

Gave more attention to leadership
situations
Hersey & Blanchard
Situational Leadership Theory
 Directive, Supportive styles based on
follower readiness
 Readiness-followers ability to set and
attain moderately difficult task-related
goals, and willingness to accept
responsibility to attain them
 Telling, Selling, Supporting, and
Delegating

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Model SITUATIONAL
LEADERSHIP
Leader Behaviors
15.7
Relationship Behavior
High
High Task
Relationship
and
and
High
Low Task
Relationship
S3
S2
S4
S1
Low
Low
High Task
Relationship
and
and
Low
Low Task
Relationship
Low
High
Task Behavior
(Directive Behavior)
Moderate
High
R4
R3
Low
R2
Follower Readiness
R1
Source: Hersey, P.,
and Blanchard, K.H.
Management of
Organizational
Behavior: Utilizing
Human Resources,
6th ed. Englewood
Cliffs, N.J.: PrenticeHall, 1993. Used by
permission from
Ronald Campbell,
President,
Leadership Studies,
Escondido,
California, 1995.
Immature
Mature
(Supportive Behavior)
High
Adapted from Figure 15.6
House’s Path Goal Model
Examines employee characteristics and
task characteristics and proposes a
matching leadership style
 Four styles of leadership

 achievement-setting
challenging goals
 directive-what and how to perform
 participative-consulting with followers
 supportive-concern for followers
House’s Path-Goal Model
 Model
suggests that effective leaders motivate
workers to achieve by:
1) Clearly identifying the outcomes workers are
trying to achieve.
2) Reward workers for high-performance and
attainment.
3) Clarifying the paths to the attainment of the goals.
 Path-Goal is a contingency model since it proposes
the steps managers should take to motivate their
workers.

Based on Expectancy Theory.
Steps to Path-Goal
1) Determine the outcomes your subordinates
are trying to obtain.

Can range from pay to job security or interesting
work.

Once outcomes determined, manager needs to be sure
they have the reward power to provide these.
2) Reward subordinates for high-performance
and goal attainment with the desired outcomes.
3) Clarify the paths to goal attainment for
workers, remove obstacles to performance, and
express confidence in worker’s ability.
Motivating with Path-goal
 Path-goal
identifies four behaviors leaders can
use:
1) Directive behaviors: set goals, assign tasks, show
how to do things.
2) Supportive behavior: look out for the worker’s
best interest.
3) Participative behavior: give subordinates a say in
matters that affect them.
4) Achievement-oriented behavior: Setting very
challenging goals, believing in worker’s abilities.
 Which
behavior should be used depends on
the worker and the tasks.
15.8
House’s Path-Goal Model
Situation
Follower lacks
self-confidence
Lack of job
challenge
Improper
procedures
and poor decisions
Ambiguous job
Leadership Style
Impact on Followers
Results
Increases selfconfidence to
complete task
Increased effort; improved
job satisfaction and
performance; fewer
grievances
Achievementoriented
Encourages setting
high, but attainable
goals
Improved performance
and greater job
satisfaction
Participative
Clarifies follower’s
needs for making
suggestions and
involvement
Improved performance
and greater satisfaction;
less turnover
Clarifies path to
get rewards
Improved performance
and greater job
satisfaction
Supportive
Directive
Adapted from Figure 15.7
Leader-Substitute Model
 Leadership
substitute: acts in the place of a
leader and makes leadership unnecessary.
Possible substitutes can be found:
Characteristics of Subordinates: their skills,
experience, motivation.
 Characteristics of context: the extent to which
work is interesting and fun.
 Worker empowerment or Self-managed work
teams reduce leadership needs.

 Managers
need to be aware that they do not
always need to directly exert influence over
workers.
Transactional Leadership

Involves managers using the reward and
coercive power to encourage high
performance.

Managers who push subordinates to
change but do not seem to change
themselves are transactional.

The transactional manager does not
have the “vision” of the Transformational
leader.
Transformational Leaders
 Transformational
leaders are charismatic and
have a vision of how good things can be.

They are excited and clearly communicate this to
subordinates.
 Transformational
leaders openly share
information with workers.
Everyone is aware of problems and the need for
change.
 Empowers workers to help with solutions.

 Transformational
leaders engage in
development of workers.
Slide 12.4
Contrast Between Transactional
and Charismatic Leadership
DIMENSION
TRANSACTIONAL
LEADERSHIP
CHARISMATIC
LEADERSHIP
Primary sources of power
Reward, legitimate, expert
Referent and reward
Basis of follower motivation
Extrinsic/economic
Intrinsic/emotional
Performance goals for
followers
Narrow, quantitative,
specific to position
Broad, qualitative, specific
to leader and vision
Emotional attachment to goals
Low
High
Expected followers’ behavior
Obey rules and regulations
Follower commitment to leader
and vision
Low to moderate
Developed through norms
and group pressures
High
Impression management
tactics
Low use
High use
Summary

Different theories demonstrate the
importance of
 Leader
 Situation
 Followers
Successful leaders display a wide range of
styles
 Transformational Vs. Transactional
Leaders

Do Leaders Matter?

Leadership Irrelevance
 Leadership
may be irrelevant for many
organizational outcomes.

Leadership Substitutes
 Leader
success depends on the
characteristics of the followers, team,
situation, and organization. Each can act as a
substitute for leader behavior.