SOME OB THEORIES RELEVANT
TO RESEARCHING THE IMPACTS OF A
DIVERSE WORKFORCE
 Jacqueline Smith-Mason
 Robbie Mitchell Jr.
 Blue Wooldridge
1
MEETING THE CHALLENGE: THEORIES THAT WILL
ASSIST IN ACHIEVING HIGH PERFORMANCE
ORGANIZATIONS WITH A DIVERSE WORKFORCE
By
Blue Wooldridge
bwooldri@vcu.edu
Fellow, National Academy of Public Administration
and Professor
The L. Douglas Wilder
School of Government and Public Affairs
VIRGINIA COMMONWEALTH UNIVERSITY
Richmond, VA 23284-2028
2
We see diversity in its broadest
meaning, as this century’s greatest
challenge to organizational live
worldwide (Griggs & Louw, 1995, p. vi)
3
FIVE CHALLENGES THAT REQUIRE NEW
APPROACHES TO MANAGING HUMAN
RESOURCES:





MANAGING STRATEGICALLY
MANAGING GLOBALIZATION
MANAGING TEAMS
MANAGING CHANGE
MANAGING DIVERSITY
(Jackson & Schuler, 2000, p. xx)
4
DIVERSITY
“A mix of people in one social system
who have distinctly different, socially
relevant group affiliations” Cox and Beale (1997,
p. 1).
5
• Managing diversity: “creating a climate in which the
potential advantages of diversity for organizational
or group performance are maximized while potential
disadvantages are minimized.” (Cox and Beale, p. 2).
• Valuing diversity: “a philosophy about how diversity
affects organizational outcomes that holds that the
presence of diversity represents a distinct
organizational resources that, properly leveraged,
can bring a competitive advantage against
organizations that either are culturally homogeneous
or fail to successfully utilize their diversity.” (Cox
and Beale, p. 13)
6
IDENTITY GROUPS
Life attitudes are not randomly distributed
through the population. Members of the
same `identity groups', say the same age,
gender, race and such, have had overlapping
life experiences which may, in turn,
predispose them toward more or less
favorable attitudes about particular company
practices and cultures" (Mirvis and Kanter 1991, p. ).
7
EXAMPLES OF IMPORTANT
IDENTITYGROUPS
 WHITE MALES
 PEOPLE OF COLOR
 WOMEN
 GAYS, LESBIANS, BISEXUAL, TRANSGENDER
 COGNITIVE STYLES
 WORKFORCE ILLITERACY
 WORKERS WITH DISABILITIES
8
IDENTITY GROUPS (CON’T)
 DIFFERENT WORK-RELATED VALUES
 WORKER STATUS
 THE “KNOWLEDGE” WORKER
 HIV INFECTED WORKERS
 INTERNATIONAL WORKERS
 OLDER WORKER
 GENERATION X WORKERS
 GENERATION Y WORKER
9
While White males comprised 51% of the
workforce as recently as 1980, they are
projected to make up only 44% of the
workforce in the year 2005 (Galen, 1994) and
43.5 % in 2014 (Toossi, 2004). In fact, when
you subtract the Hispanic population, the
percentage of the workforce that is white,
non-Hispanic males is projected to be only
34.9% in 2014, down from 43.7% in 1988, and
39.8% in 1998 (Toossi, 2005).
10
The percentages of the people of color in the
workforce in 2000 and as projected for the
year 2014 (Toossi, 2004) are:
2000
2014
• African American, non-Hispanic11.5% 12.0%
• Hispanic
10.9% 15.9%
• Asian and other non-Hispanic 4.5% 7.8%
11
It is estimated that women will make up
46.8% of the workforce in 2014, as
compared with 45.2% in 1990 and
46.6% in 2000 (Toossi, 2005). This is in
sharp contrast to 1940 when only 28%
of women were in the labor force (U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1998).
12
Research shows that more than three out of four
married employees have spouses or partners who
are also employed which is an increase from 66 to 78
percent over the past twenty years (Families and
Work Institute, 1997). Other findings of the Institute
include, 46 percent of the workforce are parents of
children under the age of 18 and 20 percent are
single parents; and 20 percent of all parents also had
responsibilities for raising children and caring for
elderly relatives. This occurrence is often referred to
as the sandwich generation.
 Look at “Family Responsibilities Discrimination
(USA Today 10/25/07 B3)
13
The number of known gays and lesbians in
America is not an easy number to derive
considering the obstacles many
homosexuals face when openly admitting
their sexual orientation. Although debated
for years, recent research indicates between
2 to 12% of the American population is gay
but due to self-reporting factors and the risks
involved in admitting homosexuality this
number could be fairly conservative (CarrRuffino, 1996; Wooldridge & Maddox, 1995).
14
Cognitive styles have been defined as "...information processing
habits representing the learner's typical mode of perceiving,
thinking, problem solving and remembering," (Keefe, 1979, p.
8). Some of the more important cognitive styles are:
 Perceptual Modality Preferences-preferred reliance on one of
the three sensory modes (kinesthetic or psychomotor, visual or
spatial, and auditory or verbal) of understanding experiences
(Dunn, Dunn, & Price, 1978);
 Field Independence vs. Dependence-analytical as opposed to a
global way of experiencing the environment. independents
perceive things as discrete from their background field, while
dependents tend to be influenced by an embedding context
(Witkin, et al, 1971);
 Conceptual Tempo-individual differences in the speed and
adequacy of hypothesis formulation and information
processing on a continuum of reflection vs impulsivity, (Kagan,
1966);
15
 Locus of Control (Rotter, 1971), and
 Leveling vs Sharpening-levelers tend to blur memories and
merge new precepts readily with previously assimilated
experience; they tend to over-discriminate, (Holzman & Klein,
1954). For a more detailed description of each of these learning
styles see Wooldridge and Haimes-Bartolf (2005) and
Wooldridge (1995).
16
Other research indicates that half of the adult work
force does not read, write, or compute well enough
to perform their work satisfactorily (Ford, 1992). The
U.S. Department of Education estimates that the
functionally illiterate now account for 30% of the
unskilled, 29% of the semiskilled, and 11% of the
managerial, professional and technical workforce. It
is estimated that more than half of the 26 million new
jobs that will be added to the economy during the
turn of the century will require some post-secondary
training, and about one-third will demand a college
degree (Bernardon, 1989).
17
Workers with Disabilities: Approximately 54 million
non-institutionalized Americans have physical,
intellectual, or psychiatric disabilities (the term
intellectual disability is used instead of cognitive
disability and mental retardation. The term
psychiatric disability is used in place of emotional
disability). Of these cases, 26 million are classified
as having a severe disability. Severe disabilities
include Alzheimer’s disease, autism, mental
retardation, and long-term use of a cane, crutches,
walker, or wheelchair. Census figures indicate that of
the 15.6 million working-aged adults (aged 16-64),
with disabilities only 34.6% were employed in
contrast with 79.8% of those without disabilities.
18
Increase in diversity of work-related values
 Power Distance “The degree of inequality which people consider
normal; from relatively equal (that is small power distance) to
extremely unequal (large power distance)” (Hofstede, 1994, p. 5).
 Uncertainty Avoidance The degree to which individuals prefer
structured over unstructured situations. Range of acceptance that
risk is a normal part of every day life.
 Individualism/Collectivism refers to which individuals prefer to act as
individuals rather than as members of groups. Individuals view their
responsibility is to themselves and immediate family, Collectivist
believe they have a reciprocal responsibility with their extended family
and community members.
19
Increase in diversity of work-related values
 Masculinity and its opposite pole Femininity (or
Growth vs Nurturing) is the degree to which values
like assertiveness, performance, success, and
competition, which in nearly all societies are
associated with the role of men, prevail over values
like the quality of life, maintaining warm personal
relationships, care for the weak.
 Long-term versus Short-term Orientation At one pole
one finds values oriented towards the future. On the
opposite side one finds values orientated towards
the past and present.
20
•
•
Country
(0= low, 100 = high)
PD
UCA
IND/COLL MAS/FEM
•
USA
40
46
91
62
29
•
Germany
35
65
67
66
31
•
Japan
54
92
46
95
80
•
Mexico
81
82
30
69
n/a
•
West Africa
77
54
20
46
16
•
Hong Kong
68
29
25
57
96
LT/ST
21
CONTINGENT WORKERS
As a result of changing demographics, nontraditional work
arrangements are increasing. A survey of CEO’s in Fortune 500
companies showed that 44% rely more on temporary, part-time,
leased, and contract workers than they did five years ago, and 44%
expect to rely more on external workers in the next five years than
they do now (Fierman, 1994). Based on the Bureau of Labor
Statistics’ definition, contingent workers are those persons who
expect their jobs to end in a year or less or report their jobs as
temporary. There are an estimated 5.4 million contingent workers in
the United States (Monthly Labor Review, June 2001). In addition to
contingent workers, the bureau refers to classifies independent
contractors, temporary workers, on-call workers, day laborers and
those employed by contract firms as workers employed in alternative
work arrangements. The February 2001 labor survey found 8.6
million independent contractors (6.4 percent of total employment),
2.1 million on-call workers (1.6 percent of total employment), 1.2
million temporary help agency workers (0.9 percent of the
employed), and 633,000 contract company workers (0.5 percent of
22
total employment).
GENERATIONAL DIVERSITY
In 2006 it was estimated that there were four
generations currently in the workforce-Matures (The
“silent generation”) were about seven percent of the
work-force, Baby Boomers were about forty-two
percent, Generation Xers were about twenty nine
percent, and the millennial generation about 22
percent .
“Workers didn’t always mingle in the workplace with
the generations the way they do today” (Eagan as
quoted by Hilton, 2001 August, p. 53).
23
THE OLDER WORKER
Older workers as an increased percentage of
the workforce: In the year 2014, the median
age of the workforce is projected to be 41.6
years up from 34.8 years in 1978, 36.6 in 1990
and 39.3 in the year 2000. In 2014 twenty-one
and two tenth percent (21.2%) of the
workforce will be older than 55 years as
compared with only 13.1% in 1984, 15.6% in
2004. (Toossi, 2005). In 2014, 46.9% of the
workforce will be older than 45 as compared
with only 28.1 % in 1984.
24
•
The group of individuals that have come to be known as Generation
X has been much the center of attention in recent literature
concerning management and employees, education and training.
As usual, stereotypes have evolved and negative opinions have
been formed and reinforced.
•
"Generation X," "The Post Baby Boom Generation," "The 13th
Generation," "Slackers," "Baby Busters," "Grunge Kids," "After
Boomers," "The Clueless Generation," "Whiners." Just as there is no
common term to describe this segment of the workforce, neither is
there a consensus as to the birth dates of this generation nor the
approximate number of this group. McIntosh (1994) identifies those
born between 1961 and 1981 as the 13th generation because they
were determined to the 13th generations of Americans. He suggests
that this generation represents nearly 79.3 million Americans. Losyk
(1997) suggest that Generation X refers to those born between the
years 1965 and 1976, and represent 44 million Xers, as compared
with the 77 million "boomers" born between 1965 and 1985.
25
GENERATION X
As Zill and Robinson (1995) warn us, sweeping generalizations about any
group are bound to be incorrect (see also Haworth, 1997). The
individuals that make up Generation X are by no means homogenous,
however, members of this group appear to be extremely different from
earlier generations (Jennings, 2000; Heselbarth, 1999; Dunn-Cane,
Gonzales & Stewart, 1999; Corley, 1999; McGarvey, 1999; Payne &
Holmes, 1998). For example, as to overlapping life experiences
relevant to their education and training, many Xers grew up with
technology right at their fingertips. In their homes, they usually had
unlimited access to video games and some even had computers that
they could freely use. Even further, some Xers were fortunate enough
to have computers in their classrooms and at arcades on weekends.
Not only is technology a key factor in their environment, Xers were
probably more familiar with their television set than they were their
schoolbooks, spending more time in front of the television than in
school
26
Members of Generation X place a high priority on
education and training. "People in Generation X view
training as a way to improve their chances of getting
promoted," (as reported in Lynch, 1998, p.1). Schaaf
(1998) found that younger workers give training
higher marks than do older workers. Generation Xers
tend to make job decisions based on whether
training is available. "The organizations that provide
continuous education are in a better position to
retain productive employees" (Caudron, 1997, p. 24).
This view is supported by the research of Bova and
Kroth (1999) which reports that Generation X
employees place a very high value on workplaces
that support continuous learning.
27
GENERATION Y
Nexters, Echo Boomers, Generation Next, Millennials,
Nintendo Generation, or N-Gen (Internet Generation
Halford (1998) refer to those born after 1980 as
Generation ”Y”. “The pace of business is changing
dramatically. That’s why understanding … Gen Y is
crucial to businesses today” (American
Demographics, 2001, September 1, p. 6).
Understanding how the 14th and largest generation
to date born in the United States (Business Week
Online, 2001) must start with learning what makes
this group so different from those that have come
previously.
28
In sheer numbers alone this group
encompasses between 71 – 76 million people
spanning the age range of those preparing to
enter kindergarten, preteens or “tweenies”,
teenagers, and young adults.
29
• Bombarded with global viewpoints Nexters
confront gender bending rules and sexuality
through redefinition, not to mention a far
from traditional concept of the family
structure as once seen by their parents and
grandparents. Reared by single parent
households headed by mothers or fathers,
extended families, and cohabitating parents,
the children of Generation Next are more
tolerant of what constitutes a family and
diversity in form is widely accepted.
30
Gen Y plans to customize their work life to
accommodate their own high expectations of what
work can offer coupled with a plan for a pleasing
personal life. In this approach to customization, the
expectation exists for supervisors to be supportive
of Nexters’ goals toward balancing professional and
personal lives (Kleiman, 2001). “With three to four
part-time job or internships under their belts … this
group is already sure they know what they want out
of their careers and how they want to be managed”
(Business Week Online, 2001).
31
BUT ACHIEVING HIGH PERFORMANCE FACES
CHALLENGES IN AN ORGANIZATION WITH A
DIVERSE WORK FORCE. IN SOME STUDIES,
DIVERSE GROUPS HAVE BEEN SHOWN TO
OUTPERFORM HOMOGENOUS GROUPS IN
CONTRAST, OTHER STUDIES HAVE
DEMONSTRATED THAT HOMOGENOUS
GROUPS AVOID THE PROCESS LOSS
ASSOCIATED WITH POOR COMMUNICATION
PATTERNS AND EXCESSIVE CONFLICT
THAT OFTEN PLAGUE DIVERSE GROUPS.
32
WELL IF THE RESEARCH ON THE RESULTS OF
INCREASED WORK FORCE DIVERSITY ON
ORGANIZATIONAL PERFORMANCE IS
MIXED, WHAT RESEARCH SUGGESTS THAT
A DIVERSE WORK FORCE IS FUNCTIONAL
FOR HPOs, WHAT THEORIES WILL GUIDE US
IN DEVELOPING COMPENCIES IN
MANAGING DIVERSITY?
33
Diversity of employees is important for high
performing organizations for at least three reasons.
First, some studies have shown that diverse work
teams are more effective, efficient and produce
higher quality solutions than there homogeneous
counterparts when diversity is managed properly.
Tsui, Egan and O'Reilly (1992) do an excellent job of
reviewing the previous literature on this issue. They
point out that there is evidence the diverse work
groups are beneficial for tasks requiring creativity
and judgement (Jackson, 1991)
34
Secondly, the concept of Representative
Bureaucracy holds that the demographic
composition of the staff of an organization
should mirror the demographic composition
of the general public. In this way, the
preferences of a heterogeneous population
will be represented in organizational decision
making. That is a female manager with
dependent children is more likely to hold
values and be sensitive to the experiences of
a female subordinate with the same
responsibilities.
35
• Insert Robbie’s work WITH HIS
IDENTIFICATION TITLE
36
Finally HPOs need a diversified staff because of the
concept of vicarious self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is an
important element in individual performance, since
belief that one has the capacity for producing a
desired result is vital for motivation (see Vroom’s
Expectancy-Valancy Theory of Motivation, 1964), and
performance is a function of motivation,
opportunities, role clarification and acceptance, and
abilities (Steers & Black, 1994). Bandura also
believes that the most important source of
information concerning self-efficacy is personal
performance accomplishment because it is based on
personal mastery experiences. Successes raise
mastery expectations.
37
However, people do not rely on experienced mastery as the sole
source of information concerning their level of self-efficacy.
Many expectations are derived from vicarious experience.
“Vicarious learning is learning that takes place through the
imitation of other [role models]. That is, we observe and
analyze what another person does and the resulting
consequences. As a result, we learn without having to
experience the phenomenon firsthand,” (Steers and Black,
1994, p. 105). Seeing others perform activities successfully can
generate expectations in observers that they, too, will improve
if they intensify and persist in the efforts. If people of widely
differing characteristics can succeed, than observers have a
reasonable basis for increasing their own sense of self-efficacy.
38
THEORIES THAT PROVIDE
INSIGHT IN ACHIEVING A
HIGH PERFORMANCE ORGANIZATION
WITH A DIVERSE WORKFOCE
39
David Silverman defines a “Theory” as a
“Statement in general terms about the
likely relationship between two or more
phenomena. It suggests hypotheses
that is possible to test, and where
necessary, refute.”
Some theories that provide insights in
managing a diverse work force:
40
CONTENT THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT Employees are motivated
by economic incentives
HUMAN RELATIONS Employees are motivated by
having their social needs meet on the job
ORGANIZATIONAL HUMANISM Employees are
motivated by challenges and the ability to grow
through their work
CONTINGENCY THEORY Employees are different.
Each is motivated by a different mixture of
incentives
41
INSERT JACKIE’S SLIDES WITH HER
IDENTIFICATION
42
ORGANIZATION JUSTICE THEORY
Organizational justice is people’s perceptions of
fairness in organizations, consisting of perceptions
of how decisions are made regarding the distribution
of outcomes (procedural justice), the perceived
fairness of those outcomes themselves (as studied
in equity theory or distributive justice), and the
perceived fairness of the interpersonal treatment
used to determine organizational outcomes
(interactional justice) (Greenberg & Baron, 2003).
43
Distributive Justice
The perceived fairness of the way rewards are
distributed among people.
Equity Theory
(Adams, S; Weick, K)
The most popular is a series of Social comparison
theories of motivation (Goodman, 1977). Others
include: Inducement-Contribution (March and
Simon), Social Exchange (Holman, G). Social
comparison theories focus on individuals’ feeling or
perception of how fairly they are treated as
compared to others.
44
Equity Theory continued
Two basic assumptions: It is assumed that individuals engage
in a process of evaluating their social relationships much like
they would evaluate economic transactions in the marketplace.
Social relationships are viewed as an exchange process in
which individuals make contributions or investments and
expect certain outcomes in return.
Secondly, it is assumed that people do not assess the equity of
an exchange in a vacuum. Instead, they compare their own
situation with others to determine the relative balance.
Determining the extent to which an exchange is satisfactory is
influenced by what happens to oneself compared to what
happens to others.
45
Equity Theory continued
• Inputs: Investments, represent those things an
individual contributes to an exchange. In a work
situation, inputs include items like previous work
experience, education and the level of effort on the
job.
• Outputs: Items that an individual receives from the
exchange. Outcomes include pay, fringe benefits,
accrued status, seniority, and positive feedback.
46
Consequences of Perceived Lack
of Distributive Justice
• People may alter their inputs
• People may alter their outcomes
• People may distort their inputs or outcomes
cognitively
• People may leave the field
• People may distort the inputs or outcomes of others
• People may change objects of comparison
• People may engage in property deviance
47
Procedural Justice
Procedural justice is perceptions of the fairness of procedures
used to determine outcomes.
Procedural justice is the employees’ perceived fairness of the
formal procedures governing an organization’s decisions
(Masterson, Lewis, Goldman, & Taylor, 2000). Employees judge
procedures based on consistency, correctability, consideration
of group opinion, accuracy of information, morality or
ethicality, and lack of bias (Hubbell & Chory-Assad, 2005). Even
when workers see a high degree of distributive justice, a low
degree of procedural justice can negate the perceived fairness
of the outcomes received (Hubbell & Chory-Assad, 2005).
48
Consequences of Perceived Lack
of Procedural Justice
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lower trust in management
Higher intention to turnover
Lower evaluation of their supervisor
Greater conflict, lower harmony
Lower job satisfaction
People may engage in production deviance
49
Interactional Justice
Interactional justice is the perceived fairness of the
interpersonal treatment used to determine
organizational outcomes.
Two major factors contribute to interactional justice.
These are informational justification (the
thoroughness of the information received about a
decision) and social sensitivity (the amount of
dignity and respect demonstrated in the course of
presenting an undesirable outcome, such as a pay
cut or the loss of a job).
50
Interactional Justice continued
While distributive justice and procedural justice are
antecedents of trust in an organization, interactional justice is
an antecedent of trust in a supervisor. Furthermore, employees
who trust their supervisor are more likely to trust the
organization as a whole. For this reason, organizations would
benefit from encouraging close relationships between
supervisors and their subordinates and from investing in
training that would teach supervisors how to treat employees
fairly and politely while also improving supervisors’ managerial
and interpersonal skills (Wong et al., 2006).
51
Interactional Justice continued
Informational justice, a term proposed by Greenberg (1994),
claims that employees are more likely to label organizational
procedures fair when the organization provides sufficient
information to the employees explaining the reasoning behind
the decisions made. Greenberg looked at the varying levels of
information presented to clerical workers regarding an
upcoming smoking ban and found that employees were most
likely to accept the ban when the organization provided
thorough information and displayed high amounts of social
sensitivity (Greenberg, 1994).
52
Conclusion
Latham and Pinder (2005) identified organizational justice theory as
one of the three most important approaches to work motivation to
surface in the past 30 years. Motivation is a psychological process
that results from the interaction between an individual and his
environment. Justice within an organization enables employees to
maximize personal gain, acknowledges their value to the
organization or to management, and shows that the organization or
those in authority hold a basic respect for the employees’ worth.
Employees who feel that the organization values their worth are
more motivated to exhibit high levels of performance and favorable
work ethic, which will in turn benefit the organization (Latham &
Pinder, 2005).
53
There appear to be conflicting theories
of what happens when a workgroup
becomes diverse.
54
Contact Theory from social psychology
(Blau,1977; Kanter, 1971; Allport, 1954) holds
that interaction with members of minority
groups makes members of the majority more
tolerant.
A primary cause of negative feelings by a
majority group toward a minority group is an
absence of meaningful interaction that
breeds ignorance and hostility. Increased
contact with minorities should contribute to
more tolerance among members of the
general public.
55
 CONTACT THEORY:
Researchers employing innovative experimental research
designs soon concluded that a wide variety of conditions
had to be met before contact with a minority group
produced more positive feelings toward that group. Most
importantly, beginning with Sheriff and others (1954)
numerous studies have indicated that members of the
dominant and minority group must have equal status for
the duration of the contact and that they must work
cooperatively on an endeavor if the contact is to produce
ameliorative effects.
56
 CONTACT THEORY:
In addition, the interaction must be fairly intimate and
the institution or society in which the contact is
taking place must support the interaction between
the groups (Allport, 1954). While these conditions
are problematic enough, they are only the
“essential” ones (Devine, 1995). Other researchers
have found evidence that successful task
completion (Blanchard, Adelman, ad Cook, 1975;
Worcel and Norvell 1980; Worchel 1986), nonstereotypicality of minority participants, shared
values and varied interaction (Sheriff et al, 1954) are
necessary for contact to have positive effects.
57
On the other hand, there are theories
that would suggest that increased
diversity of a workgroup would
increased group members hostility.
58
 Social Identity Theory (S.T. Fiske, 1993,
Thornton, Tran and Taylor, 1997). The
premise of social identity theory is that
individuals can identify with many social
groups and the salience of group
membership influences the individual’s
attitudes and behavior (S.T. Fiske, 1993).
Researchers have described identity as
sharing a common fate, interests, or values
(Thornton, Tran and Taylor, 1997).
59
Social Categorization Theory (Tajfel and
Turner, 1986; O’Reilly, Caldwell, &
Barnett, 1989). This theory explains
the role of social identity in the
development of attitudes towards
oneself and others. Social identify is
established and maintained primarily
through the process of differentiating
oneself from individual who are outside
one’s reference group.
60
 Social Categorization Theory:
There is also substantial evidence that people routinely
classify themselves and others based on social
categories such as age, gender, race, and status and
evince strong preferences for groups based on
these social categories (Tajfel and Turner, 1986).
Research consistently has shown that individuals
choose to interact more often with members of their
own social group than with members of other groups
(e.g., Stephan, 1978).
61
Similarity-Attraction Theory
The similarity-attraction hypothesis maintains that similarity in
attitudes is a major source of attraction between individuals. A
variety of physical, social and status traits can be used as the
basis for inferring similarity in attitudes, beliefs, or personality.
For example, interpersonal attraction has been associated with
similarity in socioeconomic background, competence (Baskett,
1973) and even leisure activities (Werner and Parmelee, 1979).
Consequences of high interpersonal attraction may include
frequent communication, high social integration, and a desire
to maintain group affiliation, which may result in low turnover.
62
LEADER-MEMBER EXCHANGE (LMX)
The leader-member exchange (LMX) model has been
offered by Graen and his colleagues (e.g., Graen &
Wakabayashi, 1994) as an alternative approach to
the study of leadership. In contrast to traditional
models that imply that a leader exhibits a similar
leadership style toward all members of a work group,
the LMX model suggests that leaders may develop
different types of relations with different members of
the same work group. In this respect, the model
depicts leader-follower relations (exchanges) as
existing on a continuum ranging from high to low
quality.
63
 IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT
(Bollino & Turnley: Journal of Management Volume 29, Issue 2, April 2003,
Pages 141-160)
A growing body of research indicates that
individuals in organizations often engage in
impression management behaviors that are
designed to influence the way in which they
are perceived by others (e.g., Bozeman and
Leary; Rosenfeld, Giacalone & Riordan,
1995).
64
 According to Jones and Pittman (1982), individuals
typically use five impression management tactics: (1)
Ingratiation, whereby individuals seek to be viewed as
likable by flattering others or doing favors for them; (2)
Self-promotion, whereby individuals seek to be viewed
as competent by touting their abilities and
accomplishments; (3) Exemplification, whereby
individuals seek to be viewed as dedicated by going
above and beyond the call of duty; (4) Supplication,
whereby individuals seek to be viewed as needy by
showing their weaknesses or broadcasting their
limitations; and (5) Intimidation, whereby individuals seek
to be viewed as intimidating by threatening or bullying
others.
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 Impression Management
Giacalone, (Personnel, 66 n5, May, 1989) categorizes Impression
Management into two distinct strategies:
 DEMOTION-PREVENTIVE STRATEGIES After
employees have been involved in a questionable
behavior or activity, they will probably try to
express themselves in ways that will reduce their
responsibility for that action. Social scientists
have identified three methods that individuals
use to achieve this goal: accounts, apologies,
and disassociation.
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IMPRESSION MANAGEMENT (Giacalone)
 PROMOTION-ENHANCING STRATEGIES Employees
are often concerned that management has not
recognized their talents and accomplishments and that
they will not receive the promotion or salary adjustment
that they deserve. Such employees will then attempt a
self-promotion campaign that will make their strengths
more visible and provide them with apparent
responsibility for the positive outcome in the company.
Social scientists have found that individuals who are
interested in appearing more positively may use one or
more of four primary strategies: entitlements,
enhancements, obstacle disclosures, and association.
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STRATEGIES FOR MANAGING
A DIVERSE WORK FORCE
MAINTAIN A “FAIR” ORGANIZATION
RECOGNIZE THAT DIVERSITY PRESENTS OPPORTUNITIES
DEVELOP A SUPPORTIVE CULTURE
DEVELOP A TYPE 3 CULTURE
MAKE ORGANIZATIONAL POLICIES AND PROCEDURES
TRANSPARENT
 DEVELOP AN ORGANIZATION THAT DISCOUNTS
STEREOTYPES
 MAKE DEVELOPMENTAL OPPORTUNITIES EQUITABLE TO
ALL





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 HAVE PERFORMANCE-BASED REWARDS AND
INCENTIVES
 ELIMINATE JOB SEGREGATION
 INSURE ACCURATE AND TIMELY FEEDBACK
 ESTABLISH COMPETENCE IN VALUING DIVERSITY
 MAKE EFFECTIVE COACHING/MENTORING
AVAILABLE
 CREAT REPRESENTATIVE DIVERSE ADVISORY
GROUPS
 AVOID BIAS CAUSED BY SIMILARITY-ATTRACTION
ACTIONS
 BE SENSITIVE IN HUMAN INTERACTIONS
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REFERENCES AVAILABLE
UPON REQUEST TO
bwooldri@vcu.edu
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