What Works
For Women At Work
Professor Joan C. Williams
Hastings Foundation Chair, Director
Center for WorkLife Law
University of California, Hastings College of the Law
© Copyright 2013. Joan C. Williams, Center for WorkLife Law.
GENDER BIAS IS COMMONPLACE
68%
of women believe gender bias exists
TIGHTROPE
73%
PROVE-IT
AGAIN!
60%
MATERNAL
WALL
TUG OF WAR
59%
55%
Source: Williams, J.C. & Dempsey, R.W. (in press). What works for women at work: Get savvy, get control, get ahead. New York, NY: New York
University Press; Catalyst. (2012, July). Catalyst quick take: Sex discrimination and sexual harassment. New York, NY: Author. Retrieved February
14, 2013, fromhttp://www.catalyst.org/knowledge/sex-discrimination-and-sexual-harassment-0.
IMPLICIT BIAS
Do you feel more comfortable with
people like yourself?
IMPLICIT BIAS
If you think someone’s smart, do you
tend to overlook their little stumbles?
IMPLICIT BIAS
When a woman has a baby, do you
worry she won’t be as committed to her
career?
SCHEMAS
Expectations associated with members
of a group that guide perceptions and
behaviors. Schemas
• influence judgments of group
members
• influence group members’
expectations about how they will be
judged
Image source: (Image purchased from http://www.istockphoto.com)
SCHEMAS AFFECT EVALUATION
25% - 46%
INCREASE
in women hired when
auditions held behind
a screen.
Source: Goldin, C., & Rouse, C. (2000). Orchestrating impartiality: The impact of "blind" auditions on female musicians. American Economic Review,
90(4), 715-741.
SCHEMAS AFFECT EVALUATION
Jamal
• White names yielded as many more callbacks
as 8 additional years of experience
• The higher the resume quality, the higher the
gap between callbacks for black and white
names
Source: Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004). Poverty Action Lab, 3, 1-27.
Greg
4 PATTERNS OF GENDER BIAS
• Prove It Again!
• The Tightrope
• The Maternal Wall
• Tug of War
PROVE-IT AGAIN! IS COMMON
TIGHTROPE
73%
PROVE-IT
AGAIN!
60%
MATERNAL
WALL
TUG OF WAR
59%
55%
© Copyright 2013. Joan C. Williams
PROVE-IT AGAIN!
Women need to give more evidence of competence
than men to be judged equally competent
Triggered by race as well as gender
Knobloch-Westerwick, Glynn, & Huge, 2013; Moss-Racusin, Dovidio, Brescoll, Graham, & Handelsman, 2012; Roth, Purvis, & Bobko, 2012; Davison & Burke,
2000; Biernat & Kobrynowicz, 1997.
PROVE-IT AGAIN!
MEN’S POTENTIAL
WOMEN’S ACHIEVEMENTS
SHE IS ‘lazy’ or not ‘tenurable material,’
HE IS ‘engaged in research that will take
longer to reach the publication world.’”
Source: Williams, J.C. (2007). [Focus group interviews for NSF ACE grant, San Francisco, CA]. Unpublished data.
Supporting evidence: Barsh & Yee, 2011.
PROVE-IT AGAIN!
MEN’S SUCCESSES
WOMEN’S SUCCESSES
ATTRIBUTION BIAS
HE’S skilled.
SHE’S lucky.
Kulich, Trojanowski, Ryan, Alexander Haslam, & Renneboog, 2011; Garcia-Retamero & López-Zafra, 2006; Swim & Sanna, 1996; Igbaria & Baroudi,
1995; Greenhaus & Parasuraman, 1993; Taylor, Fiske, Etcoff, & Ruderman, 1978.
PROVE-IT AGAIN!
WOMEN’S MISTAKES
MEN’S MISTAKES
RECALL BIAS
Women’s mistakes are noticed more, and
remembered longer
Bowles & Gelfand, 2010; Bauer & Baltes, 2002; Rothbart, Evans, & Fulero, 1979.
PROVE-IT AGAIN!
OBJECTIVE REQUIREMENTS
LENIENCY BIAS
We dismissed a lot of women on the
grounds they hadn’t finished their
dissertations—and then accepted a
man who hadn’t finished his.
Source: Huang, P.M., (n.d.) Gender bias in academia: Findings from focus groups, San Francisco, CA: The Center for WorkLife Law. Retrieved
February 14, 2013, from http://worklifelaw.org/pubs/gender-bias-academia.pdf.
Supporting evidence: Biernat, Fuegen, & Kobrynowicz, 2010; Bowles & Gelfand, 2010; Bauer & Baltes, 2002.
CASUISTRY
• Princeton experiment
• What matters, education or
experience?
Source: Norton et al. (2004). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 87 (6), 821.
POLARIZED EVALUATIONS
Polarized Evaluation
Fleming,
Petty,
& White,
2005;
Glick, 1980)
Diebold, Bailey-Werner, & Zhu, 1997; Scherer, Owen, & Brodzinski, 1991;
Source:
Source:
(Linville
& Jones,
Heilman, Martell, & Simon, 1988; Jussim, Coleman, & Lerch, 1987; Weber & Crocker, 1983; Linville & Jones, 1980
© Copyright 2013. Joan C. Williams
STUDIES OF ACADEMIA
• Dept. chairs given identical CVs of ♀ & ♂
– Significantly more likely to hire man as associate, women as assistant,
professor
• Recommendation letters
– For men: “brilliant and original”
– For women: “reliable, responsible, meticulous”
Sources: Dovidio & Gaertner (2000). Psychological Science, 11, 315-319; Wilson, 2004.
Let’s decide up front what the
objective requirements are.
Let’s go back to the
top of the pile.
PROVE-IT AGAIN!
INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES
TIGHTROPE IS COMMONPLACE
TIGHTROPE
73%
PROVE-IT
AGAIN!
60%
MATERNAL
WALL
TUG OF WAR
59%
55%
THE TIGHTROPE
TOO MASCULINE | TOO FEMININE
“
To get ahead here, you have to be so aggressive. But
if women are too aggressive they’re ostracized…and
if they’re not aggressive enough they have to do
twice the work.”
Source: Nadis, S. (1999). Women scientists unite to battle cowboy culture. Nature, 398 (6726), 361.
Supporting evidence: Biernat, Tocci, & Williams, 2012; Okimoto & Brescoll, 2010; Phelan, Moss‐Racusin, & Rudman, 2008; Rudman & Phelan, 2008;
Bowles, Babcock, & Lai, 2007; Rudman & Glick, 2001; Burgess & Borgida, 1999; Costrich, Feinstein, Kidder, Marecek, & Pascale, 1975.
Supporting evidence: Asbrock, 2010; Cuddy, Fiske, Kwan & al., 2009; Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2008; Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2007; Fiske, Cuddy, & Glick, 2007;
Eckes, 2002.
THE TIGHTROPE
LIKED BUT NOT RESPECTED | TOO FEMININE PROBLEMS
• Are women expected to do the office housework?
• Committee and other service work, plan parties, take notes,
clean up the lab, doing administrative work
• Or to play narrowly cabined feminine roles?
• Dutiful daughter
• Ever-understanding mother (students and colleagues)
Haselhuhn & Kray, 2012; Bowles, Babcock, & McGinn, 2005; Heilman & Chen, 2005; Glick & Fiske, 2001; Taylor, 1981; Kanter, 1975.
THE TIGHTROPE
RESPECTED BUT NOT LIKED | TOO MASCULINE
Direct
Outspoken
Assertive
Competitive
Phelan, Moss‐Racusin, & Rudman, 2008; Rudman & Phelan, 2008; Rudman & Fairchild, 2004; Rudman & Glick, 2001; Costrich, Feinstein, Kidder,
Marecek, & Pascale, 1975.
THE TIGHTROPE
LIKED BUT NOT RESPECTED | TOO MASCULINE
• Are women faulted for
•Being outspoken
•Seen more often as arrogant
•Dismissed as too ambitious
•Ice queen
• “Nice Work on the Academy”
Bettis, Pamela J. and Natalie G. Adams. “Nice at Work in the Academy.” (unpublished manuscript).
THE TIGHTROPE
RESPECTED BUT NOT LIKED | TOO MASCULINE
ANGER
Showing anger tends to increase the perceived
status of a man, but decrease that of a woman
Source: Brescoll, V.L. & Uhlmann, E.L. (2008). Can an angry woman get ahead?: Status conferral, gender, and expression of emotion in the workplace.
Psychological Science, 19(3), 268-275.
Supporting evidence: Gupta, 2013; Kring, 2000.
THE TIGHTROPE
RESPECTED BUT NOT LIKED | TOO MASCULINE
SELF-PROMOTION
“She’s a prima donna” “He knows he’ s a hot
commodity.”
Rudman & Phelan, 2008; Prentice & Carranza, 2002; Rudman, 1998.
‘S
MATERNAL WALL
MOTHERHOOD TRIGGERS THE STRONGEST FORM OF GENDER BIAS
• 79% less likely to be hired
• only half as likely to be promoted
• offered $11,000 less in salary
• Held to higher performance and
punctuality standards
Source: Correll, S.J., Benard, S. & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112 (5), 1297–1338.
Supporting evidence: Heilman & Okimoto, 2008; Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2004; Fuegen, Biernat, Haines, & Deaux, 2004.
MATERNAL WALL
“
As a mother of two infants, she had
responsibilities that were incompatible with
those of a full-time academician.”
Frasch, K., Mason, M.A., Stacy, A., Goulden, M., & Hoffman, C. (2007). Creating a family friendly department: Chairs and deans toolkit. Berkley, CA:
University of California Faculty Family Friendly Edge. Retrieved February 14, 2013, from
http://ucfamilyedge.berkeley.edu/ChairsandDeansToolkitFinal7-07.pdf;
Correll, S.J., Benard, S. & Paik, I. (2007). Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty? American Journal of Sociology, 112 (5), 1297–1338.
MATERNAL WALL
ATTRIBUTION BIAS
GAP IN HIS RESUME
GAP IN HER RESUME
Hoobler, Wayne, & Lemmon, 2009; Correll, Benard, & Paik, 2007; Heilman & Haynes, 2005.
MATERNAL WALL
HOSTILE PRESCRIPTIVE BIAS
I don’t know how you can leave your
children. My wife could never do that.
Hebl, M. R., King, E. B., Glick, P., Singletary, S. L., & Kazama, S. (2007). Hostile and benevolent reactions toward pregnant women: complementary
interpersonal punishments and rewards that maintain traditional roles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), 1499.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 70, 491-512; Schneider v. Northwestern University, 925 F. Supp. 1347 (N.D. Ill. 1996).
MATERNAL WALL
BENEVOLENT PRESCRIPTIVE BIAS
This is not a good time for her.
Hebl, M. R., King, E. B., Glick, P., Singletary, S. L., & Kazama, S. (2007). Hostile and benevolent reactions toward pregnant women: complementary
interpersonal punishments and rewards that maintain traditional roles. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), 1499.
Glick, P., & Fiske, S. T. (1996). The ambivalent sexism inventory: Differentiating hostile and benevolent sexism. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 70, 491-512; Schneider v. Northwestern University, 925 F. Supp. 1347 (N.D. Ill. 1996).
MATERNAL WALL
HOSTILE PRESCRIPTIVE BIAS
Indisputably competent and committed mothers
Less likable
Held to higher performance standards
Correll & Benard, 2010; Correll, Benard, & Paik, 2007; Cuddy, Fiske, & Glick, 2004; Fuegen, Biernat, Haines, & Deaux, 2004.
FRIGID CLIMATE FOR FATHERS
THE FLEXIBILITY STIGMA
Over 40 percent of academic fathers did not ask to
stop the tenure clock for a new child even though it
would have helped them to take it.
Source: Drago, R. & Colbeck, C.L. (2003). The mapping project: exploring the terrain of U.S. colleges and universities for faculty and families.
University Park, PA: The Pennsylvania State University.
Supporting evidence: Rudman & Mescher, 2013; Wayne & Cordeiro, 2003; Allen & Russell, 1999.
MATERNAL WALL
SOME THINGS ARE ILLEGAL
• Treating men different from women
• Denying parental leave to either men or women is illegal
• So is penalizing either women or men for taking it
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, 29 U.S.C. §§ 2601 et seq. (FMLA). Note that the FMLA does not apply to all employers and
circumstances. Note further that the legal information contained herein is of a general nature and is subject to change; it is not meant to serve as legal
advice in any particular situation. You should contact your attorney to obtain advice with respect to any particular issue or problem.
MATERNAL WALL
FAMILY FRIENDLY EDGE
“I turned down MIT to come to Berkeley because they
have these progressive family friendly policies”
Know what you offer re parental leave, stop-the-clock, part
time tenure track?
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, 29 U.S.C. §§ 2601 et seq. (FMLA). Note that the FMLA does not apply to all employers and
circumstances. Note further that the legal information contained herein is of a general nature and is subject to change; it is not meant to serve as legal
advice in any particular situation. You should contact your attorney to obtain advice with respect to any particular issue or problem.
TUG OF WAR IS COMMON
when gender bias against women turns into fights among women
TIGHTROPE
73%
PROVE-IT
AGAIN!
60%
MATERNAL
WALL
TUG OF WAR
59%
55%
© Copyright 2013. Joan C. Williams
TUG OF WAR
The woman faculty members I’ve met that have
been older than me are always very encouraging,
very helpful and very kind to me.”
Hall, E.V. (2012, June). [Interview for NSF Tools for Change Project]. Unpublished data.
TUG OF WAR
TOKENISM
“
Opportunities for women are very zero-sum.
If one woman gets a prized position or
assignment, that means another woman
won’t. And so it breeds a sense of
competition.”
Source: Williams, J.C. & Dempsey, R.W. (in press). What works for women at work: Four patterns every working woman needs to know (forthcoming
NYU, February 2014.
Supporting evidence: Zatz, 2002; Ely, 1994a & 1994b; Keller & Moglen, 1987; Kanter, 1997a & 1997b.
TUG OF WAR
I’m not a girl at Google, I’m a geek at
Google.” Marissa Mayer
Women who had experienced discrimination early in their careers…
Derks, Ellemers, van Laar, & de Groot, 2011; Derks, Van Laar, Ellemers, & de Groot, 2011; Ellemers, Heuvel, Glider, Maass, & Bonvini, 2004.
TUG OF WAR
“
It’s a tough world out there
You’ll make us look bad
I had to pay my dues
TUG OF WAR
TOMBOYS vs FEMMES
“
I’ve seen lots of women, senior women, behave
that way. And even not just as far as the working
long hours, but even adopting male
mannerisms…. but sort of really aggressive and
not putting up with any crap…and not supporting
younger women….
Huang, P.M., (n.d.) Gender bias in academia: Findings from focus groups, San Francisco, CA: The Center for WorkLife Law. Retrieved February 14,
2013, from http://worklifelaw.org/pubs/gender-bias-academia.pdf.
TUG OF WAR
FEMMES vs TOMBOYS
“
…I’m on kind of a backlash mission ...I wear
dresses, I bake cookies for my group meetings,
I bring my child to class with me…. I’ve
just…stuck it out there and said…I’m a
woman, I’m someone’s mother…I’m not going
to compete as a boy because I’m not a boy.
Huang, P.M., (n.d.) Gender bias in academia: Findings from focus groups, San Francisco, CA: The Center for WorkLife Law. Retrieved February 14,
2013, from http://worklifelaw.org/pubs/gender-bias-academia.pdf.
TUG OF WAR
MOMMY WARS
“
I worked long hours and my kids are fine.”
Childfree: “They are just reinforcing stereotypes.”
Childless: “I had to make hard choices.”
SENIOR WOMEN
Remember younger women’s
experience is different.
TUG OF WAR
INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES
JUNIOR WOMEN
Remember senior women may not have
as much power as you think.
TUG OF WAR
INDIVIDUAL STRATEGIES
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