The History and
Development of
Cybernetics
The History and Development of Cybernetics
The History and
Development of
Cybernetics
The History and Development of Cybernetics
Presented by The George Washington University in Cooperation with
The American Society for Cybernetics
Many years ago . . .
The things a person had to understand to get through life were relatively
uncomplicated.
Every object or process, which we
shall refer to as a system, was
relatively simple.
In fact, up until the last few
hundred years, it was possible for
some people to master a
significant portion of man's
existing knowledge.
Leonardo DaVinci
Leonardo Da Vinci was a leader
in the fields of painting . . .
. . . sculpture . . .
. . . anatomy . . .
. . . architecture . . .
. . . weapons engineering, and . . .
. . . aeronautical engineering. This
is his sketch for a 16th century
flying machine . . .
. . . and for a parachute in case
the machine broke down.
Complexity
As time passed, the systems that humans were concerned with became . . .
. . . more and more complicated.
Transportation systems alone
have become more complex . . .
. . . and more complex . . .
. . . and more complex . . .
. . . and more complex . . .
. . . as have energy systems.
Some people have suggested that technology . . .
. . . is advancing so rapidly it . . .
. . . is outpacing our ability to control it.
Three Mile Island
Clearly, it is no longer possible for one person to keep up with developments in
all fields, let alone be a leader in many of them, as Leonardo Da Vinci was.
Specialization has become a necessity. How then, do we live and work
effectively in a technically advanced society?
Is there a way that you, the modern man or woman, can sort through the
complexity, formulate a set of principles underlying all systems and thereby
enhance your ability to regulate the world in which you live?
Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems
This question was of interest to a handful of people in the 1940s who were the
pioneers in a field that has become known as Cybernetics, the science of the
regulation of systems.
Cybernetics is an interdisciplinary
science that looks at any and all
systems from molecules . . .
. . . to galaxies, with special attention to
machines, animals and societies.
Cybernetics is derived from the
Greek word for steersman or
helmsman, who provides the
control system for a boat or ship.
This word was coined in 1948 and defined as a science by Norbert
Wiener, who was born in 1894 and died in 1964. He became known
as the Father of Cybernetics.
Wiener was an applied mathematician, biologist, and electrical engineer. He
worked during World War II on the radar-guided anti-aircraft gun.
He connected a special
radar to the gun so that
it was aimed
automatically at the
enemy aircraft. After
the gun was fired, the
radar quickly
determined the
changing location of
the plane and re-aimed
the gun until the plane
was shot down.
The system imitated human functions and performed them more effectively.
Feedback
The anti-aircraft gun demonstrates the cybernetic principle of feedback.
Feedback is information about the results of a process which is used to change
the process. The radar provided information about the changes in location of the
enemy airplane and this information was used to correct the aiming of the gun.
A more familiar example of the use of feedback to regulate a system is the
common thermostat for heating a room.
Room Temperature Rises to 700
If the heating system is
adjusted, as is common, to
allow a maximum of 2
degrees variation, when the
thermostat is set at 68
degrees the temperature will
rise to 70 degrees . . .
Room Temperature Rises to 700
Furnace Turns
Off
. . . before a temperature
sensor in the thermostat
triggers the furnace to turn off.
Room Temperature Rises to 700
Furnace Turns
Off
The furnace will remain off until
the temperature of the room has
fallen to 66 degrees . . .
Room Temperature Falls to 660
Room Temperature Rises to 700
. . . then the sensor in
the thermostat triggers
the furnace to turn on
again.
Furnace Turns
On
Furnace Turns
Off
Room Temperature Falls to 660
Self Regulating System
The sensor provides a feedback loop of information that allows the system to
detect a difference from the desired temperature of 68 degrees and to make a
change to correct the error. As with the anti-aircraft gun and the airplane, this
system – consisting of the thermostat, the heater and the room – is said to
regulate itself through feedback and is a self-regulating system.
The human body is one of the
richest sources of examples of
feedback that leads to the
regulation of a system. For
example, when your stomach is
empty, information is passed to
your brain.
When you have taken corrective action, by eating, your brain is similarly notified
that your stomach is satisfied.
In a few hours, the process starts all over again. This feedback loop continues
throughout our lives.
Stomach Feels Empty
Time
Stomach
Feels Full
Person
Eats
The human body is such a marvel
of self-regulation that early
cyberneticians studied its
processes and used it as a model
to design machines that were selfregulating. One famous machine
called the homeostat was
constructed in the 1940s by a
British scientist, Ross Ashby.
Just as the human body maintains
a 98.6 degree temperature the
homeostat could maintain the
same electrical current, despite
changes from the outside.
Homeostasis
The homeostat, the human being, and the thermostat all are said to maintain
homeostasis or equilibrium, through feedback loops of various kinds. It does
not matter how the information is carried – just that the regulator is informed of
some change which calls for some kind of adaptive behavior.
Another scientist, Grey Walter,
also pursued the concept of
imitating the self-regulating
features of man and animals.
His favorite project was building mechanical 'tortoises' that would, like this live
tortoise, move about freely and have certain attributes of an independent life.
Walter is pictured here with his
wife Vivian, their son Timothy, and
Elsie the tortoise. Elsie has much
in common with Timothy. Just as
Timothy seeks out food, which is
stored in his body in the form of
fat, Elsie seeks out light which
she 'feeds' on and transforms into
electrical energy which charges
an accumulator inside her. Then
she's ready for a nap, just like
Timothy after a meal, in an area of
soft light.
Although Elsie's behavior imitates
that of a human, her anatomy is
very different. This is what Elsie
looks like underneath her shell.
She looks a lot more like the inside of a transistor radio than . . .
. . . the inside of a human body.
But as a cybernetician, Walter
was not interested in imitating the
physical form of a human being,
but in simulating a human's
functions.
Cybernetics does not ask . . .
“What Is This Thing?”
. . . but . . .
“What Does it Do?”
Grey Walter did not attempt to
simulate the physical form of a
human, as does a sculptor, but to
simulate human functions.
In other words, he viewed humans . . .
Not as Objects,
. . . but as . . .
Processes
For centuries, people
have designed
machines to help with
human tasks and not
just tasks requiring
muscle power.
Automata, such as the little
moving figures of people or
animals that emerge from cuckoo
clocks and music boxes, were
popular in the 1700's and
machines capable of thinking
were a subject for speculation
long before the electronic
computer was invented.
Macy Foundation Meetings
1946 - 1953
From 1946 to 1953 there was a series of meetings to discuss feedback loops and
circular causality in self-regulating systems.
The meetings, sponsored by the Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation, were
interdisciplinary, attended by engineers, mathematicians, neurophysiologists, and
others.
The chairman of these meetings, Warren McCulloch, wrote that these scientists
had great difficulty understanding each other, because each had his or her own
professional language.
There were heated arguments that were so exciting that Margaret Mead, who
was in attendance, once did not even notice that she had broken a tooth until
after the meeting.
The later meetings went somewhat more calmly as the members developed a
common set of experiences.
These meetings, along with the
1948 publication of Norbert
Wiener's book titled 'Cybernetics,'
served to lay the groundwork for
the development of cybernetics as
we know it today.
Here is a photograph taken in the 1950s of the four prominent early
cyberneticians that you have already met. From left to right they are: Ross
Ashby of homeostat fame; Warren McCulloch, organizer of the Macy
Foundation meetings; Grey Walter, creator of Elsie, the tortoise; and Norbert
Wiener, who suggested that the field be called ‘Cybernetics.'
Neurophysiology
+
Mathematics
+
Philosophy
Warren McCulloch was a key figure in enlarging the scope of cybernetics.
Although a psychiatrist by training, McCulloch combined his knowledge of
neurophysiology, mathematics, and philosophy to better understand a very
complex system . . .
. . . the human nervous system.
He believed that the functioning of the nervous system could be described in the
precise language of mathematics.
For example, he developed an equation which explained the fact that when a
cold object such as an ice cube touches the skin for a brief instant, paradoxically
it gives the sensation of heat rather than cold.
Neurophysiology
+
Mathematics
+
Philosophy
McCulloch used not only mathematics and neurophysiology to understand the
nervous system but also philosophy – a rare combination. Scientists and
philosophers are often considered miles apart in their interests – scientists study
real, concrete, . . .
. . . physical things, like plants, . . .
. . . animals, . . .
. . . and minerals, while philosophers, . . .
. . . study abstract things like ideas,
thoughts, and concepts.
Epistemology = Study of Knowledge
McCulloch could see that there is a connection between the science of
neurophysiology and a branch of philosophy called epistemology, which is the
study of knowledge.
While knowledge is usually considered invisible and abstract, McCulloch
realized that knowledge is formed in a physical organ of the body, the brain.
Physical
Brain
Abstract
Mind
Knowledge
The mind is, in fact, the meeting place between the brain and an idea, between
the physical and the abstract, between science and philosophy.
Physical
Philosophical
Experimental Epistemology
McCulloch founded a new field of study based on this intersection of the
physical and the philosophical. This field of study he called 'experimental
epistemology,' the study of knowledge through neurophysiology. The goal was to
explain how the activity of a nerve network results in what we experience as
feelings and ideas.
Cybernetics = Regulation of Systems
Why is McCulloch's work so important to cyberneticians? Remember,
cybernetics is the science of the regulation of systems.
The human brain is perhaps the most
remarkable regulator of all, regulating
the human body as well as many other
systems in its environment. A theory of
how the brain operates is a theory of
how all of human knowledge is
generated.
Whereas an anti-aircraft gun and a thermostat are devices constructed by
people to regulate certain systems, the mind is a system that constructs itself
and regulates itself. We shall say more about this phenomenon in a few
minutes.
Other Concepts in Cybernetics
Now that we have touched on some of the key people, their interests, and their
contributions, we shall look at a few additional concepts in cybernetics.
Law of Requisite Variety
One important concept is the law of requisite variety. This law states that as a
system becomes more complex, the controller of that system must also become
more complex, because there are more functions to regulate. In other words,
the more complex the system that is being regulated, the more complex the
regulator of the system must be.
Let's return to our example of a
thermostat.
If a house has only a furnace, the
thermostat can be quite simple –
since it controls only the furnace.
However, if the house has both a
furnace and an air conditioner, the
thermostat must be more complex
– it will have more switches,
knobs, or buttons – since it must
control two processes – both
heating and cooling.
The same principle applies to
living organisms. Human beings
have the most complex nervous
system and brain of any of the
animals. This allows them to
engage in many different activities
and to have complex bodies.
In contrast, some animals such as the starfish, . . .
. . . sea cucumber, . . .
. . . and sea anemone have no centralized brain, but only a simple nerve
network, which is all that is required to regulate the simpler bodies and functions
of these sea animals. In summary, the more complex the animal, the more
complex the brain needs to be.
The law of requisite variety not only applies to controlling machines and human
bodies, but to social systems as well. For example, in order to control crime, it is
not necessary or feasible to have one policeman for each citizen, because not
all activities of citizens need regulation . . .
. . . just illegal ones. Therefore, one or two police for every thousand people
generally provides the necessary capability for regulating illegal activities.
In this case a match between the
variety in the regulator and the
variety in the system being
regulated is achieved not by
increasing the complexity of the
regulator, but by reducing the
variety in the system being
regulated. That is, rather than
hiring many policemen, we simply
decide to regulate fewer aspects
of human behavior.
Self Organizing Systems
The self-organizing system is another cybernetic concept, which we all see
demonstrated daily. A self-organizing system is a system that becomes more
organized as it goes toward equilibrium. Ross Ashby observed that every
system whose internal processes or interaction rules do not change is a selforganizing system.
For example, a disorganized group of people who are waiting . . .
. . . to take a bus will fall into a line, because of their past experience that lines
are a practical, fair way to obtain service. These people constitute a selforganizing system.
Even a mixture of salad oil and
vinegar is a self-organizing system. As
a result of being shaken as shown
here, the mixture changes to a
homogeneous liquid – temporarily.
As the salad dressing is allowed
to go to equilibrium, the mixture
changes its structure and the oil
and vinegar separate
automatically. We could say that
the mixture organizes itself.
The idea of self-organization
leads to a general design rule. In
order to change any object, put
the object in an environment
where the interaction between the
object and the environment
changes the object in the direction
you want it to go. Let's consider
three examples . . .
First, in order to make iron from
iron ore we put the iron ore in an
environment called a blast
furnace. In the furnace, coke is
burned to produce heat. In the
chemical and thermodynamic
environment of the blast furnace,
iron oxides become pure iron.
As a second example consider the process of educating a child. The child is
placed in a school.
As a result of interacting with teachers and other students in the school, the
child learns to read and write.
A third example is the regulation
of business by government. To
regulate their affairs the people of
the United States adopted a
Constitution that established three
branches of government. By
passing laws, Congress creates
an environment of tax incentives
and legal penalties which are
enforced by the Executive
Branch.
These incentives and penalties, which are adjudicated by the courts,
encourage businessmen to modify their behavior in the desired direction.
Each case – the iron smelting
furnace . . .
. . . the school with its teachers and students . . .
. . . and government regulation of
business can be thought of as a
self-organizing system. Each
system organizes itself as it goes
toward its stable equilibrial state.
And in each case the known
interaction rules of the system
have been used to produce a
desired result.
The recent work on cellular automata, fractal geometry, and complexity can be
thought of as an extension of the work on self-organizing systems in the early
1960s.
So far we have talked mainly about how cybernetics can help us to build
machines and to understand simple regulatory processes. But cybernetics also
can be helpful in understanding how knowledge itself is generated.
This understanding can provide us
with a firmer foundation for
regulating larger systems, such as
business corporations, nations, . . .
. . . and even the whole world.
Role of the Observer
In the late 1960's cyberneticians
such as Heinz Von Foerster of the
United States, . . .
. . . Humberto Maturana of Chile, . . .
. . . Gordon Pask and, . . .
. . . Stafford Beer of Great Britain . . .
Second Order Cybernetics
. . . began extending the application of cybernetics principles to understanding
the role of the observer. This emphasis was called 'second-order cybernetics.'
Whereas, first-order cybernetics
dealt with controlled systems,
second-order cybernetics deals
with autonomous systems.
Applying cybernetic principles to
social systems calls attention to
the role of the observer of a
system who, . . .
. . . while attempting to study and understand a social system, is not able to
separate himself from the system or prevent himself from having an effect on it.
In the classical view, a scientist working in a laboratory takes great pains to
prevent his own actions from affecting the outcome of an experiment. However,
as we move from mechanical systems, such as those the scientist works with in
the laboratory, to social systems, it becomes impossible to ignore the role of the
observer.
For example, a scientist such as Margaret Mead who studied people and their
cultures, could not help but have some effect on the people she studied.
Because she lived within the
societies she studied, the
inhabitants would naturally, on
occasion, want to impress her,
please her, or perhaps anger her.
Mead's presence in a culture altered that culture and, in turn, affected what she
observed.
This 'observer effect' made it impossible for Mead to know what the society was
like when she wasn't there.
A conscientious news reporter will
always be affected by his or her
background and experience and
hence will necessarily be
subjective. Also, one reporter is
unable to gather and comprehend
all the information necessary to
give a complete, accurate report
on a complex event.
For these reasons, it is wise to
have several different people
study a complex event or system.
Only by listening to descriptions of
several observers can a person
form an impression of how much
a description of an event is a
function of the observer and how
much the description is a function
of the event itself.
Whereas, in the early days,
cybernetics was generally applied
to systems seeking goals defined
for them, 'second-order'
cybernetics refers to systems that
define their own goals.
It focuses attention on how
purposes are constructed. An
interesting example of a system
that grows from having purposes
set for it to one that defines its
own purposes is a human being.
When children are very young,
parents set goals for them. For
example, parents normally desire
that their children learn to walk,
talk, and use good table manners.
However, as children grow older, they learn to set their own goals and pursue
their own purposes, such as deciding on educational and career goals, . . .
. . . making plans to marry . . .
. . . and start a family.
To review what we have learned, cybernetics was first noted for the concept of
feedback.
The human body is a rich source
of examples of how feedback
allows systems to regulate
themselves, causing scientists to
be interested in studying . . .
. . . and simulating human and
animal activities, from walking to
thinking.
Cybernetics studies selforganizing properties and has
moved . . .
. . . from a concern primarily with
machines . . .
. . . to include large social systems.
Although we shall never be able
to return to the times of Leonardo
Da Vinci and master all fields of
existing knowledge, we can
construct a set of principles that
underlie the behavior of all
systems.
Also, as cybernetics tells us, because the observer defines the systems he
wants to control, complexity is observer-dependent.
Complexity, like beauty, is in the eye of the beholder.
The History and Development of
Cybernetics
Narrated By:
Paul Williams
Produced By:
Enrico Bermudez
Paul Williams
Written By:
Catherine Becker
Marcella Slabosky
Stuart Umpleby
© 2006 The George Washington University: umpleby@gwu.edu