Group Influences on Consumer
Behavior, Consumer buying Process
and Different Kinds Of Buying
behaviors
By : -Neeraj Gupta
Sources of influence on consumer behaviour can be described as marketer
dominated or non-marketer dominated and as delivered by mass media or
personally
Marketer dominated
Non-marketer
dominated
(1 )
Mass
delivered
De livered
Personality
Adve rtis ing
Sa les promot ions
Publicity
(2 )
Ne w s
Crit ique s/re vi ew s
Progra mm e cont ent
Ex te rnal endors eme nts
Cultural he roes/
heroines Clubs/
organis ations
(3 )
(4 )
S ale sp ers ons
Family Friends
Neighbours Clas sm ate s
Co -w or k er s
Special: Opinion leaders
Sources: Market mavens
Low
High
Credibility
Reach
Reach
High
Low
Low
High
Two - wa y
Communication
Market
Maven
Individuals whose
influence stems from a
general knowledge or
market expertise that
leads to an early
awareness of new
products and services.
When do Groups Exert Influence?
The group influence on an individual's buying behaviour depends on three factors:

Attitude Towards the Group: According to William O. Bearden and
Richard Rose, individual's susceptibility to group influence varies widely.
The buying behaviour of a consumer is more likely to be influenced by the
group if the individual:
1.
Views the reference group as a credible source of information about the
product or service.
2.
Values the views and reactions of group members with regard to buying
decisions.
3.
Accepts the rewards and sanctions allotted out by the group for proper or
improper behaviour.
Nature of the Group: James H. Leigh and Terrance G. Gabel note that
reference groups are more likely to influence a group member's behaviour if they
are:
i.
Cohesive, that is having similar values and norms.
ii. Frequently interacting and thus creating more opportunities to influence
members.
iii. Distinctive and exclusive, that is, the membership in the group is highly
regarded.
As is case with the Harley-Davidson group example, the group is closely knit and
for many members biking has become a full-time hobby. Membership is
exclusive and distinctive as they refer to each other as "brothers" and outsiders
as "citizens.“
Nature of the Product: The nature of the product also determines the degree of
influence a group has on an individual. Groups are more likely to be influential
for products, which are: (a) visible such as clothing and (b) exclusive that might
speak of status such as a Mercedes.
Types of Reference Groups
Reference groups furnish points of comparison by which one can evaluate
attitudes and behaviour. An individual can be a member of a reference group
such as the family and would be said to be part of a membership group. This
same individual may aspire to belong to a cricket club and would be said to be
apart of an aspiration group. A disclaimant group is one to which an individual
may belong to or join and then reject the group's values. An individual may also
regard the membership in a specific group as something undesirable and to be
avoided. Such a group is a dissociative group.
Membership Groups
1.
Primary Informal Groups
2.
Primary Formal Groups
3.
Secondary Informal Groups
4.
Secondary Formal Groups
Cont….
Types of Reference Groups
Membership
Positive
attitude
Negative
attitude
Non membership
Positive membership
group
Aspiration group
Disclaimant-group
Dissociative group
Types of membership groups
Primary
Secondary
Informal
Formal
Family/Peer Group
School/Business
groups
Sports/Kitty Party -group
Teachers/IAS Association
Types of aspiration groups
Contact
No Contact
Anticipatory
Symbolic
Appealing to Increase Position
Aspiration Groups
Anticipatory Aspiration Groups:
These are groups that an individual
anticipates to join at some future
time. The individual, generally, has
some direct contact with such
group(s).
For instance, the individual may
wish to join a group higher in the
organisational hierarchy.
The ad appeal focuses on
anticipation of ultimately reaching
at the top in the business
organisation.
Famous soccer player (David Bekham)
endorses Police Sunglasses
Symbolic
Aspiration
Groups:
The
individual
admires these
groups but is
unlikely to join
them
despite
acceptance
of
the
group's
beliefs
and
attitudes.
Table 10.1 Positive Influences on
Conformity
Group Characteristics
 Attractiveness
 Expertise
 Credibility
 Past Success
 Clarity of Group Goals
Personal Characteristics
 Tendency to Conform
 Need for Affiliation
 Need to be Liked
 Desire for Control
 Fear of Negative
Evaluation
Nature of Reference Groups




Reference groups establish certain norms, roles, status,
socialisation and power. These characteristics exert their
influence on consumers.
Norms: - 'Norms' are generally defined rules and
standards of behaviours that the group establishes.
'Values' are shared beliefs among group members
regarding what behaviours are appropriate or
inappropriate. Cultures and sub-cultures largely define
the values.
'Roles' refer to functions that an individual assumes or
that the group assigns to her/him to accomplish group
objectives.
Nature of Reference Groups



'Status' is the achieved or ascribed position that the
individual occupies
within the group's hierarchy. As
one may expect, greater power and influence goes with
higher status.
'Socialisation' refers to the process by which new
members learn the
group's system of values, norms
and expected behaviour patterns.
‘Power’ A group’s influence on its members behaviour is
closely related to its power.




Reward
Coercive
Expert
Referent
Groups Influences and Consumer Behavior
Types of Reference Group Influences
Nature of
influence
Objectives
Perceived
source
characteristics
Informational
Knowledge
Credibility
Expert
Acceptance
Self-maintenance
and enrichment
Similarity
Referent
Identification
Reward
Power
Reward or
coercion
Conformity
Comparative
Normative
Type of
power
Behaviour
Informational influence is likely to be more important when consumers perceive
financial, social, or performance risk in buying a product.
Groups Influences and Consumer Behavior
Relative Importance of Informational, Comparative
and Normative Influence

Product Characteristics: - Consumers tend to be susceptible to
informational influence when products are technologically complex
such as computers and peripherals, autos, air conditioners and
washing machine etc.

Researchers have hypothesised that reference groups can influence
two types of decisions: (1) whether we buy a product within a given
product category and (2) what brand we buy. The influence would
also depend on whether the product is typically consumed in private
or public and whether it is a necessity or luxury.

For example, the group will probably not influence whether a
member buys Colgate toothpaste or Aquafresh. But the group might
influence the purchase of products such as a brand of latest mobile
phone, or watch.
Reference Group Influences on Publicly and
Privately Consumed Luxuries and Necessities
Where Consumed
In Private
In Public
Necessity
Type of Product
Luxury
Influence weak
Razor
Toilet soap
Water heater
Mattress
Influence weak
Clothing
Watches
Shoes
Conveyance
Influence strong
Body massage
DVD player
Hot bath tub
Private swimming-pool
Influence strong
Camcorder
Jewelry
Health club
Custom-made
Car
Cont….
Relative Importance of Informational, Comparative
and Normative Influence

Consumer Characteristics: - Some consumer personalities are
such that make them readily susceptible to influence by others.

Those susceptible to interpersonal influence seek to enhance their
self-image by possessing products that they believe others will
approve of.

A personality characteristic referred to as "attention to social
comparison information" (ATSCI) is also related to normative
influence. Those individuals who are high on this personality trait are
likely to pay a great deal of attention to what others do and use this
information as a guide to their own behaviour.
Marketing Strategies Based on Reference Group Influence


Marketers employ informational, comparative and normative group
influences to develop marketing communication strategies.
Advertising often makes use of informational influence through
expert spokespersons who communicate information about product
features and performance.

Using Persons like Amitabh Bachan to prove to audience that
Navrattan Oil is the best, Binani Cement is the best as people
believe him to be a credible authority.

Advertising applies comparative influence by using either an actual
referent in the form of a ìtypical consumerî or use a celebrity as a
symbolic referent with whom consumers identify because she/he is
likeable or attractive. The typical consumer (Lalitaji of Surf ad)
persuades consumers that people like themselves have used the
advertised product.
The ad for Fiat Palio uses Sachin Tendulkar as a symbolic referent.

(a) Actual referent is a “typical” consumer (b) Symbolic referent The famous cricketer
Marketing Strategies Based on Reference Group Influence


Marketers frequently use normative influence approach by showing
group approval in ads for a particular brand. Commercials of Orient
PSPO, Coca Cola, Pepsi, Taj Mahal tea, brands of paints, clothing
and personal care products etc. are examples of advertising ís
simulation of social approval.
Celebrities are best used as experts when consumers view them as
knowledgeable about the product category and conveying legitimacy
in their message.
Word-of-mouth Communications
Word-of-mouth is interpersonal communication that takes place between two or
individuals such as members of a family or reference group. All of these people
exert an influence on the consumers' purchase behaviour through such
communications. The saying "a satisfied customer is your best salesperson"
shows the importance of favourable word-of-mouth to the marketer, because
satisfied customers influence relatives and friends to buy the product.
Consumers learn about new products or service and retail outlets etc., from
family members, friends and other reference groups in two ways:
1.
By observing or participating with them as they consume a product or
service.
2.
By asking for information or advice about a product or service from them.
Cont….
Conditions for Word-of-mouth Communication
Research study by Herr, Kardes and Kim has shown that word-of-mouth is not
the dominant influence in each situation. For example, they found that word-ofmouth is not important in the evaluation of an automobile if (1) consumers
already have strong impression of the product and/or (2) negative information
about the product is available.
1. The product is visible and, thus, purchase behaviour becomes obvious.
2. The product is distinctive and reflects a particular style, taste and other
personal norms.
3. The product is new and consumers have not established impressions and
attitudes about it.
4. The product conforms to important group norms and belief systems such as
reactions to a new soft drink, or teenagers' reactions to pop and rock music.
5. Consumers perceive the purchase of the product as risky and, due to this
reason, are more likely to discuss about it and seek information and advice
Cont….
from friends and relatives.
Word-of-mouth Communication Process
Two-step Communication Flow
Elihu Katz and Paul F. Lazarsfeld were among the first to identify and describe
word-of-mouth communication. According to them, it is two-step flow of
information : (1) from the mass media to opinion leaders and (2) from opinion
leaders to their followers. They believed that opinion leaders' exposure to mass
media is greater than that of followers.
Mass media
Opinion leaders
Followers
b. Multi-step word-of-mouth communication flow
Gatekeepers
Mass media
Opinion leaders
Followers
Cont….
Multi-step Communication Flow
1.
Followers may not be active seekers of information; yet they are not totally
passive and may deliberately initiate requests for information. They may
also pay attention to unsolicited opinion of others.
2.
Opinion leaders are also likely to receive information from followers and
may be influenced by their word-of-mouth. So, word-of-mouth frequently
turns out to be a two-directional flow of communication between leaders and
followers.
3.
Mass media is not restricted only to opinion leaders. They are not the only
ones who receive all the communications. Followers too are exposed to
mass media advertising and are influenced by it. Realisation of this fact led
Katz and Lazarsfeld to think that there may be others who function as
"information gatherers" or "gatekeepers," serving this function.
Opinion
Leadership
The process by which
one person (the
opinion leader)
informally influences
the consumption
actions or attitudes of
others who may be
opinion seekers or
opinion recipients.
What Is Opinion Leadership?
Opinion
Leader
Opinion
Receiver
Opinion
Seeker
Word of Mouth in Action
Figure 15-1
Dynamics of the Opinion Leadership
Process





Credibility
Positive and Negative Product Information
Information and Advice
Opinion Leadership Is Category-Specific
Opinion Leadership Is a Two-way Street
Many not-forprofit
organizations that
hope to change
behavior, count on
opinion leaders.
Motivations Behind Opinion Leadership
Issues




The Needs of
Opinion Leaders
The Needs of
Opinion Receivers
Purchase Pals
Surrogate Buyers
versus Opinion
Leaders




Self-involvement
Social involvement
Product involvement
Message involvement
Motivations Behind Opinion Leadership
Issues




The Needs of
Opinion Leaders
The Needs of
Opinion Receivers
Purchase Pals
Surrogate Buyers
versus Opinion
Leaders




New product or new usage
information
Reduction of perceived
risk
Reduction of search time
Receiving the approval of
the opinion leader
Motivations Behind Opinion Leadership
Issues




The Needs of
Opinion Leaders
The Needs of
Opinion Receivers
Purchase Pals
Surrogate Buyers
versus Opinion
Leaders


Actually accompany
consumers on
shopping trips
Used 25 percent of the
time for purchases of
electronic equipment
Motivations Behind Opinion Leadership
Issues




The Needs of
Opinion Leaders
The Needs of
Opinion Receivers
Purchase Pals
Surrogate Buyers
versus Opinion
Leaders


Surrogate buyers may
replace opinion
leaders
An example is a
wardrobe consultant
who helps in the
purchase of business
clothes
Characteristics of Opinion Leaders
Much research has been conducted to identify traits of opinion leaders but so far
the research is inconclusive. Despite difficulties in identifying opinion leaders,
some general traits have been identified.
1. The most salient characteristic of opinion leaders is their greater long-term
involvement with the product category compared to non-opinion leaders in
the group. This trait is referred as enduring involvement and according to G.
M. Rose, L. R. Kahle and A. Shoham, it leads to enhanced knowledge about
the product and experience with the product category or activity. This
enhanced knowledge and experience makes opinion leadership possible.
2. Opinion
leadership
functions
primarily
through
interpersonal
communications and observations. These activities occur most frequently
among individuals with roughly the same social-class position as nonleaders but opinion leaders are likely to be viewed as having higher status in
their social-class. It is important to note the significant role family members
play in opinion leadership.
Cont….
3.
Opinion leaders tend to be more gregarious and are willing to act differently
even if it attracts the attention of peers. Their exposure to mass media,
relevant to their interest, is greater. For example, opinion leaders to ladies
fashions could be expected to have greater exposure to magazines such as
Femina, Vogue and Women's Era etc. Exposure to interest relevant mass
media helps enhance their potential as opinion leaders.
Situations in which People Seek an Opinion Leader
Knowledge about product/service
High
Product/purchase
involvement
Low
High
Low
Moderate
High
Low
Moderate
Marketing Implications
An obvious fact is that consumers talk to other consumers about their personal
experiences with products, services and retail stores. Therefore, it is extremely
important that marketers pay serious attention to product quality and service and
meet or exceed consumer expectations with regard to their products or services.
The firm must make arrangements to respond to customer complaints quickly
and fairly.
Stimulating opinion leadership involves having an acknowledged opinion leader.
For example, the print ad of Colgate Total toothpaste says, "Approved by
independent dental associations in 30 countries."
Consumers’ Buying Decision Process
Problem Recognition
The Problem Recognition Process
Desired consumer lifestyle
The way consumer would
like to live and feel
Current situation
Temporary factors affecting
the consumer
Desired state
The condition the consumer
would like to be in at this
point of time
Actual state
The condition the consumer
perceives to be in at this
point of time
Nature of discrepancy
Differences between the consumer's desired and
perceived conditions
No difference
Satisfaction
Desired state
exceeds actual
state
Actual state
exceeds desired
state
Problem recognised
Types of Problem Recognition
Immediacy of solution
Expectancy
Of
problem
Immediate
solution
required
Immediate
solution not
required
Occurrence of
Problem
expected
Routine
Planning
Occurrence of
problem
unexpected
Emergency
Evolving
Emergency problems are possible but are unexpected
and necessarily need immediate solutions. For
example, say a consumer meets an accident while on
his/her way to office, gets injured and the vehicle is
badly damaged. In such an emergency, she/he needs
a quick solution to reach hospital's emergency room.
Subsequently, she/he may plan to get the vehicle
repaired or buy a new one.
Example of an Active Problem
Situations that can Cause Problem Recognition
Influencers
Influencers
Culture/sub-culture
Social status
Reference group
Family characteristics
Financial situation
Earlier decisions
Individual growth
Emotions
Motives
Situation
Evaluation
Desired
state
- Less than?
- Equal to?
- More than?
Actual
State
Past decisions
Normal depletion
Brand/product
performance
Individual growth
Emotions
Govt./consumer
group
Product availability
Situation
Cont….
Non-marketing Factors Influencing Problem Recognition
Role of emotion in problem recognition
The five of the most common situations
are:
1.
Depletion of stocks
2.
Dissatisfaction with goods in stock
3.
Environmental changes
4.
Change in financial situation
5.
Marketer initiated activities.
Cont….
Approaches
Recognition
to
Activating
Problem
Generic problem recognition.
Ordinary tap water is not safe.
1. Generic problem recognition focuses on
helping consumers feel a discrepancy that a
number of brands within a product category can
reduce. Generally, a marketer will use this
approach when the problem is either latent or of
low importance and one of the following
conditions exists.
i.
Product is in the early stage of its life cycle.
ii.
The marketer has very high market share.
iii. After problem recognition, consumers'
external search tends to be limited.
iv. It is a situation of industry-wide cooperative
effort.
Cont….
2.
Selective
problem
recognition
focuses on a discrepancy that only a
Selective problem recognition. Getting a
job is high priority for most students in
India.
particular brand can solve. Marketers use
this
approach
to
causing
problem
recognition in an attempt to increase or
maintain market share
Cont….
Marketing Strategy and Problem Recognition
1. Activity Analysis- Such as cleaning house,
preparing meal, or travel etc.
Influencing the desired state
2. Product Analysis- Examining the purchase
and or use of particular product, service or
brand
3.
Problem Analysis
4. Human
Factors
Research-Helpful
in
identifying consumer functional Problems they
are not aware about.
5.
Emotion Research
Marketers also attempt to influence consumers' perceptions about their existing state. Women
do not want to use a soap that dries their skin. They desire to have fresh and smooth skin and
the advertisement of Dove soap is designed to generate concern about the existing state of their
skin
Nature of Information Search
Extended decision-making represents a significantly more involving purchase
situation. External information can refer to any of the following:
1. The opinions, beliefs, attitudes, behaviours and feelings of relatives, friends,
neighbours and strangers contacted on the Internet.
2. Professional information contained in handouts, pamphlets, articles,
magazines,
the Internet and provided by personal professional contacts.
3. Direct experiences with product through trial, or inspection.
4. Marketer-initiated info included in advertisements, and by sales personnel.
Consumer decision-making requires three types of information:
1. The Evaluative Criteria : An important objective of internal and external
search for information is the determination of appropriate evaluative criteria.
Evaluative
criteria?
Yes
Performance
level of each
solution on
each criterion?
Existing
solutions?
Information
search
terminates
Is the information
enough to make a
balanced
decision?
No
Information
search
continues
2.
Appropriate Alternatives
Once the consumer has established the evaluative criteria, she/he probably
starts searching for the appropriate alternative which could be brands or perhaps
stores. As a result of internal search or inquiry, the consumer may recall or learn
that the available brands of computers include IBM, Compaq, Dell, Wipro,
Zenith, Vintron and Apple.
All alternatives
Known and unknown
Awareness set
Brands known to
consumer
Unawareness set
Brands not known
to consumer
Evoked set
Brands
Considered
Inept set
Brands
avoided
Inert set
Backup
brands
Brand
purchased
Brands considered
but not purchased
Cont….
Decision-alternative Categories
3.
Attributes of Alternative
Consumers compare brands in the evoked set to make their choice. This
process of evaluation requires consumers to collect information about each
brand on each relevant evaluative criterion. In case of computer purchase, the
consumer might collect information about the price, processor, memory, graphic
card, monitor, accompanying software and warranty etc., for each brand.
Sources of Information for Purchase Decision-making
Sources of
Information
External
information
Internal
information
Acquired
actively
Past
searches
Personal
experience
Acquired
actively
Acquired
passively
Low-involvement
learning
Personal
sources
Independent
sources
Marketer
controlled
Others’
experiences
Cont….
Cost/Benefit View of External Search
Four basic factors influence the perceived benefits and costs of search:
1.
Market conditions
2.
Product characteristics
3.
Consumer characteristics
4.
Situational factors.
Cont….
Marketing Strategy Implications
1.
Maintenance strategy
2.
Disrupt strategy
3.
Capture strategy
4.
Intercept strategy
5.
Preference strategy
6.
Acceptance strategy.
Position
Type of Target Market Decision-Making
Nominal decision
making
(No search)
Limited decision
making
(Limited search)
Extended decision
making
(Extended search)
Brand in
evoked set
Maintenance
strategy
Capture
strategy
Preference
strategy
Brand not in
evoked set
Disrupt
strategy
Intercept
strategy
Acceptance
strategy
Cont….
1. Maintenance Strategy
2. Disrupt Strategy
This ad attempts to disrupt habitual purchase
Product improvement as part of
maintenance strategy
Cont….
Capture Strategy
The marketer's objective should be to capture a large
share of consumers' purchases.
Intercept Strategy
Intercept strategy is also related to consumers' limited
decision-making approach. If the marketer's brand is
not part of the evoked set of target market, the
appropriate strategy is to intercept consumers during
their information search on the brands in evoked set.
Preference Strategy
Preference strategy is appropriate when the brand is
part of the evoked set of consumers in the target
market and the approach to decision-making involves
extensive information search.
This ad is part of capture
or Intercept Strategy as it
offers consumers an immediate
incentive
Acceptance Strategy
The basic objective of the marketer is to move the
brand in the evoked set of consumers, rather than try
to "sell" the brand.
Cont….
Evaluation of alternatives
Choice Based on Attitude vs. Attributes
Affective Choice (feeling-based choice)
Purchase Decision
•
Outlet Selection
Need
arousal
- Purchase needs
- Shopping needs
Information
processing
Brand
evaluation
- Outlet attributes
- Outlet image
Feed back
Post-purchase
Evaluation
Retail outlet
choice
•
Outlet Image
•
Retailer Brands
•
Retail (local) Advertising
•
Location of Outlet and Size
•
Consumer Attributes and Outlet Selection
•
Risk Perception in Store Choice
•
Sales Personnel
Post-Purchase Evaluation

Cognitive dissonance occurs as a result of some discrepancy
between a consumer's prior evaluation and the purchase decision.
The dissonance theory was derived from two basic principles:
(1) dissonance is unpleasant and will motivate the person to
reduce it and (2) individuals experiencing dissonance will avoid
situations that produce more dissonance.

The probability that a consumer will experience dissonance and the
magnitude of such dissonance, is a function of the following factors:
The degree of irrevocability of the decision
The importance of decision to the consumer
The difficulty of choosing among the alternatives
The individual's tendency to experience anxiety




The consumers may use one or more of
the following approaches to minimising
the dissonance:
1.
Increase the desirability of the brand
purchased
2.
Decrease the desirability of alternatives
not selected
3.
Decrease the importance of the purchase
decision
4.
Return the product before using it.
After purchase, customers are more
receptive to reinforcing advertisements
Levels of Consumer Decision Making

Extensive Problem Solving



Limited Problem Solving



A lot of information needed
Must establish a set of criteria for evaluation
Criteria for evaluation established
Fine tuning with additional information
Routinized Response Behavior

Usually review what they already know. There are
some products which are used on a daily basis
like food items, soap, shampoo etc. For these
products purchase is routinised. Command Low
Involvement
Levels of Consumer Decision Making




Purchase Involvement is the level of concern for, or interest
in, the purchase process stimulated by the need to consider a
certain purchase.
Product involvement refers to a consumer’s level of interest
in a certain product. Marketers communicate many sales
promotions to increase consumer involvement in a product.
Advertising involvement refers to the consumer’s interest in
processing the ad messages. Television is said to be a low
involvement medium and consumers process information in a
passive manner. In contrast, print is a high-involvement
medium as the readers actively process information.
Purchase situation involvement may occur while buying the
same item in different contexts.
Limited and Extensive Problem Solving Behaviour
Nominal Decision-making

At one end of choice continuum is nominal decision-making, also
referred to as nominal problem solving, habitual decision making, or
routine problem solving. Nominal decision-making is generally the
outcome of continued satisfaction with a brand which was initially
chosen after an extended decision-making process, or the consumer
does not attach much importance to the product category or
purchase.
Limited Decision-Making
Limited decision-making is usually more straightforward and simple. It involves
internal (long-term memory) and limited external search, consideration of just a few
alternatives, simple decision rules on a few attributes and little post-purchase
evaluation. As pointed out earlier, it covers the middle ground between nominal and
extended decision-making. Buyers are not as motivated to search for information, or
evaluate each attribute enthusiastically, but actually use cognitive shortcuts. According
to Wayne D. Hoyer, when the level of consumer involvement is lowest, limited
decision-making may not be much different than nominal decision-making. For
example, while in a store, the consumer notices a point-of-purchase display of
Nescafe and picks up one pack based on her/his memory that its aroma and taste is
good. If the consumer's decision rule is to buy the cheapest brand of instant coffee
available, she/he looks at different brands of coffee for prices and buys the least
priced brand. Sometimes, emotional factors may influence limited decision-making.
Cont….
Extended Decision-Making
Consumer purchases involving extended decision-making correspond most closely to
the traditional decision-making perspective. Such decisions involve extensive internal
(long-term memory) and external (outside sources) information search followed by a
rigorous evaluation of several alternatives because consumers do not possess any
meaningful information about the product or service and need much of it. The
evaluation often involves careful consideration of attributes of one brand at a time
and taking stock of how the attributes of each brand measure up to a set of desired
characteristics. All this happens in response to a high level of consumer's
involvement in making a purchase decision. Such complex decisions are relatively
few and may relate to buying a computer, stereo system, washing machine, laser
printer, or a new house etc. Post purchase evaluation is more likely to be complex
and dissonance causing.
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