Practical Strategies
for Developing Secondary Students’
Grammar Knowledge for Communication
18 November 2011
09:30 – 17:00
English Language Education Section,
Curriculum Development Institute, Education Bureau
Rundown of Today’s Programme
09:30 – 10:00
Setting the Scene: The Place of Grammar in the English Language
Curriculum and Public Assessments
10:00 – 10:30
Emphases of Grammar Learning & Teaching
10:30 – 10:45
Break
10:45 – 11:20
Grammar Activities – From Form-focused to Meaning-focused
11:20 – 12:30
Presenting Grammar in Context
12:30 – 14:00
Lunch Break
14:00 – 15:30
Activities for Learning, Teaching and Assessing Grammar in
Context (I)
15:30 – 15:45
Break
15:45 – 16:50
Activities for Learning, Teaching and Assessing Grammar in
Context (II)
16:50 – 17:00
Q&A
Setting the Scene:
The Place of Grammar
in the English Language Curriculum
and Public Assessments
Objectives of the Seminar-cum-workshops
• To raise teachers’ awareness of the place of grammar in the English
Language curriculum and public assessments
• To develop teachers’ capacity to enhance transition in the
development of students’ grammar knowledge across key stages
• To develop teachers’ competence and confidence in teaching
grammar for communication through a range of methods or
approaches
• To develop teachers’ skills in designing, selecting and adapting
resources and activities for the learning, teaching and assessment
of grammar
Emphases of
Grammar Learning & Teaching
Consolidation and Extension
of Communicative Functions and
Language Items at JS and SS Levels
Communicative Functions across Key Stages
The Communicative Functions
listed for Key Stages 1 & 2
should be consolidated and
extended to a greater degree of
complexity at Key Stage 3.
The Communicative Functions
listed for Key Stages 1-3 should be
consolidated and extended to a
greater degree of complexity at
senior secondary level.
Source: CDC Syllabus for English Language (Secondary 1-5) (1999), p.18.
Consolidation and Extension of
Communicative Functions at JS & SS Levels
e.g. Introduce oneself
I’m Joe. I am six years old. I like
apples.
Introduce oneself to the class
KS1
Hi, I am Andy. I am a 13year old boy who loves
blogging. My friends call
me Smarty because I like
to make people laugh with
clever jokes.
Introduce oneself on a personal
homepage
I am a senior secondary
student in a school that
mainly adopts Chinese as
the medium of instruction.
My experience in the last
four years has told me that
it is more effective to learn
non-language subjects in
Chinese.
Introduce oneself in a letter to
the editor
SS
Consolidation and Extension of
Grammar Items at JS and SS Levels
Passive voice at JS
To focus on the receiver
of the action, rather than
the doer of the action, e.g.
The man was released from
prison yesterday.
Passive voice at SS
To use the subject it with the
passive voice (It + verb be +
past participle + that + clause)
to convey an objective and
formal tone, e.g.
It is believed that this rise in the
Earth’s temperature is caused by
the rapid build-up of greenhouse
gases in the atmosphere.
Items learnt at earlier Key Stages
should be consolidated and
extended to a greater degree of
complexity at later Key Stages
Consolidation and Extension of
Communicative Functions and Grammar Items & Structures
Communicative functions are consolidated and extended to a greater
extent of complexity through the use of different language forms
in a variety of contexts.
Grammar as Resources and Choice
Grammar as Resources
•
•
The same communicative function can be expressed by different grammar
items and structures:
e.g. suggestions can be made by using:
–
–
–
–
•
You must / have to…
You had better / You’d better…
You should…
Why not… / Why don’t you…?
The same grammar item and structure can be used to express different
communicative functions:
e.g. the modal “will” is used:
– to talk about intention
– to express certainty
– to talk about the future
Grammar as Choice
Language varies according to contexts.
Language, rather than being a set of rules, is a set
of resources for making meaning.
Meaning arises from the grammar choices that
are made.
“Candidates must be able to make such adjustments to their English
based on the context and the relative roles of the author and audience. It
is this flexibility with their English that distinguishes a candidate who can
perform fairly straightforward tasks from those who are moving towards a
more sophisticated command of English.”
HKEAA English Language The Chief Examiner’s Report 2010
Grammar Activities –
From Form-focused to Meaning-focused
A Framework for Activity Design in the Learning, Teaching & Assessment of Grammar
From Form-focused to Meaning-focused – A Continuum
free
controlled
communication
practice
tasks
exercises
Noncommunicative
Precommunicative
Communicative
Structured
communication
Authentic
communication
Focus on
meaning
Focusing on the
target language
item/structure,
how it is formed
and what it
means
Practising the
target
language item/
structure with
some attention
to meaning, but
not
communicating
new messages
Practising the
target language
Item/structure in
a context where
it communicates
new information
Using language
to communicate
in situations
which elicit the
pre-learnt
language item/
structure but
with some
unpredictability
Using language
to communicate
in situations
where the
meanings are
unpredictable
Focus on form
Adapted from: Littlewood, W. (2000). Task-based Learning of Grammar. Hong Kong: HKBU.
The Guiding Principles for Grammar Learning and Teaching
in the Classroom Context
In order to learn [grammar] successfully, learners
need a judicious combination of tasks and
supporting exercises in which they focus upon and
practise specific elements of knowledge…
Exercises should be sequenced systematically and
integrated with each other to support a task.
Source: CDC Syllabus for English Language Secondary 1-5 (1999), p.44.
The Guiding Principles for Grammar Learning and Teaching
in the Classroom Context
These exercises and tasks should provide
students with opportunities to produce oral
and written output.
Presenting Grammar in Context
Presenting Grammar in Context
Using a Task-based Approach
The purpose and context of the Main Task are examined and the grammar items /
structures to be learnt are identified by the teacher.
The target grammar items/structures are presented in a meaningful context.
The rules are either explained by the teacher or worked out by the student. The
target grammar items / structures are then practised.
A cluster of sub-tasks is designed by the teacher for students to further practise
the target grammar items / structures.
Knowledge of the target grammar items/structures gained from the sub-tasks is
applied when the student works on the Main Task.
Teaching Grammar from Rules The Deductive Method
The target grammar items / structures are presented by the teachers in terms
of their forms and functions.
Examples are provided by the teachers to illustrate the forms and functions of
the target grammar items / structures. In the context of the task-based
approach, these examples can be relevant to the task to be completed.
The target grammar items / structures are practised.
Teaching Grammar from Examples The Inductive Method
With teacher support, the target grammar items/structures are identified by the students
from the text.
The target grammar items/structures are analysed by the students according to their
forms.
A hypothesis is made by the students about the forms and functions of the target
grammar items/structures, using previous knowledge and contextual clues.
The target grammar items/structures are compared with similar ones, and the differences,
if any, are highlighted by the students.
What has been learnt is confirmed and consolidated by making reference to dictionaries,
grammar books, textbooks, etc by the students.
Presenting Grammar in Context
Using an Inductive / Deductive Method
Study the following sentences. Group them according to the function the
present continuous tense performs.
The school is having an English week
this week.
Listen! The bell is ringing now!
Look at this photo! Your classmates are
playing basketball.
Jack is making faces at his classmates now.
Joey is not paying attention.
He is looking out of the window now.
During the English week, the tuck shop is
giving you a 20% discount on all drinks.
In this photo, Ms Chan, the principal,
is talking to Ms Wong, your form teacher.
Look at Ada in the photo! She is finishing
first in the 100-m sprint final!
Throughout this week, even Chinese
teachers are speaking English.
Our school choir are singing lovely English
songs in the hall every day this week.
1) Throughout this week, even
Chinese teachers are
speaking English.
4) In this photo, Ms Chan, our
principal, is talking to
Ms Wong, your form teacher.
7) Look at this photo! Your
classmates are playing
basketball.
2) Jack is making faces at his
classmates now.
5) Look at Ada in the photo!
She is finishing first in the
100-m sprint final!
8) During the English week,
the tuck shop is giving you a
20% discount on all drinks.
6) Listen! The bell is ringing
now!
9) Our school choir are singing
lovely English songs in the hall
every day this week.
3) The school is having an
English week this week.
10) Joey is not paying attention.
He is looking out of the
window now.
The Present Continuous Tense (Deductive Method)
To talk about things that
are happening now
To describe photos or
pictures
To talk about temporary
situations
2) Jack is making faces at her
classmates now.
5) Look at Ada in the photo!
She is finishing first in the
100-m sprint final!
3) The school is having an
English week this week.
6) Listen! The bell is ringing
now!
4) In this photo, Ms Chan, our
principal, is talking to
Ms Wong, your form teacher.
10) Joey is not paying attention.
He is looking out of the
window now.
7) Look at this photo! Your
classmates are playing
basketball.
1) Throughout this week, even
Chinese teachers are
speaking English.
8) During the English week,
the tuck shop is giving you a
20% discount on all drinks.
9) Our school choir are singing
lovely English songs in the hall
every day this week.
The Present Continuous Tense (Inductive Method)
To talk about things that
are happening now
To describe photos or
pictures
To talk about temporary
situations
Listen! The bell is ringing
now!
In this photo, Ms Chan, our
principal, is talking to
Ms Wong, your form teacher.
The school is having an
English week this week.
Joey is not paying attention.
He is looking out of the
window now.
Look at Ada in the photo!
She is finishing first in the
100-m sprint final!
Throughout this week, even
Chinese teachers are
speaking English.
Jack is making faces at his
classmates now.
Look at this photo! Your
classmates are playing
basketball.
During the English week,
the tuck shop is giving you a
20% discount on all drinks.
Our school choir are singing
lovely English songs in the hall
every day this week.
Grammar Rules! – To Teach or Not to Teach
• Do’s
•
Don’ts
– EXPLAIN grammar rules
after exposing Ss to the use
of the target language items
/ structures in context.
– TEACH grammar as a
system of rules or a
standalone body of
knowledge
– PROVIDE opportunities for
Ss to internalise grammar
rules through meaningful
communication.
– EXPLAIN grammar rules in
isolation
36
Presenting Grammar in Context
Learners acquire new grammatical
structures when they encounter them in
input, take them in, and incorporate them
into their existing interlanguage system.
However, exposure alone may not be enough for
acquisition to take place. Learners may also need to
pay conscious attention to the grammatical structures
in the input. Noticing is the necessary condition for
input to become intake.
Source: Ellis, R. (2002). Methodological Option in Grammar Teaching Materials. In Hinkel, E. & Fotos, S.
(2002). New Perspectives on Grammar Teaching in Second Language Classrooms. Mahwah, N.J.: LEA, Inc., p.166.
Presenting Grammar in Context
In order for learners to see that grammar is a dynamic
resource for expressing and creating meaning, learners
should be exposed to authentic use of the language…
Source: CDC Syllabus for English Language Secondary 1-5 (1999), p.50.
Presenting Grammar in Context
“Simply knowing what to do is no guarantee that you will be
able to do it, or that you will be able to do it well.” Practice
activities are necessary to target “precision at applying the
System”, “automatisation of the system”, and “integrating new
knowledge into old”.
Source: Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Harlow: Longman, pp.91-92.
A Framework for Activity Design in the Learning, Teaching & Assessment of Grammar
From Form-focused to Meaning-focused – A Continuum
free
controlled
communication
practice
tasks
exercises
Noncommunicative
Precommunicative
Communicative
Structured
communication
Authentic
communication
Focus on
meaning
Focusing on the
target language
item/structure,
how it is formed
and what it
means
Practising the
target
language item/
structure with
some attention
to meaning, but
not
communicating
new messages
Practising the
target language
Item/structure in
a context where
it communicates
new information
Using language
to communicate
in situations
which elicit the
pre-learnt
language item/
structure but
with some
unpredictability
Using language
to communicate
in situations
where the
meanings are
unpredictable
Focus on form
Adapted from: Littlewood, W. (2000). Task-based Learning of Grammar. Hong Kong: HKBU.
Practising Grammar in Context through Speaking –
Preparatory Activity for School-based Assessment (SBA)
Grammar activities can always be infused into the
daily language learning activities, e.g. SBA, skillsfocused activities, etc.
In the learning and teaching phase leading to an SBA activity,
grammar items / structures that are critical to the successful
completion of the activity can be practised.
Practising Grammar in Context through Reading –
Skills Practice Books
Reading passages in skills practice books
can be exploited for raising students’
grammar awareness and consolidating
their grammar knowledge.
Practising Grammar in Context
Textbook grammar activities can be adapted
and supplemented, where necessary, to
bridge the two ends of the continuum of
controlled practice exercise and free
communication tasks.
Activities for Learning,
Teaching and Assessing Grammar
in Context (II)
A Framework for Activity Design in the Learning, Teaching & Assessment of Grammar
From Form-focused to Meaning-focused – A Continuum
free
controlled
communication
practice
tasks
exercises
Noncommunicative
Precommunicative
Communicative
Structured
communication
Authentic
communication
Focus on
meaning
Focusing on the
target language
item/structure,
how it is formed
and what it
means
Practising the
target
language item/
structure with
some attention
to meaning, but
not
communicating
new messages
Practising the
target language
Item/structure in
a context where
it communicates
new information
Using language
to communicate
in situations
which elicit the
pre-learnt
language item/
structure but
with some
unpredictability
Using language
to communicate
in situations
where the
meanings are
unpredictable
Focus on form
Adapted from: Littlewood, W. (2000). Task-based Learning of Grammar. Hong Kong: HKBU.
Assessment of Grammar for Learning
The objectives of assessment of grammar for learning are to provide
opportunities for students to demonstrate that they can:
Use the target form in
decreasingly controlled
situations
Map meaning onto
the target form
Focus on form
Use knowledge of
grammar for the
purpose of
communication in real
time
Focus on meaning
Assessment results provide:
• information about what aspects of the target grammar items need
further work; and
• direction on what kind of feedback to provide for guiding learning.
Learning & Teaching Grammar
vs
Assessing Grammar
• “Almost any teaching task can be used for assessment purposes, and
vice versa.”
(Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based Language Teaching. Cambridge: CUP, p.143.)
Assessment of Grammar for Learning in Practice
Grammar Activities
To find out if Ss can map meaning onto the target form:
Interpretation activity (3)
Choose the best summary of each situation:
1. Ben started work five hours ago. He is still working.
a. Ben is working for five hours.
b. Ben was working for five hours.
c. Ben has been working for five hours.
2. Rebecca joined the queue for tickets 30 minutes ago. She bought her ticket
10 minutes ago.
a. Rebecca is queuing for 20 minutes.
b. Rebecca was queuing for 20 minutes.
c. Rebecca has been queuing for 20 minutes.
Source: Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Harlow: Longman, p.107.
Assessment of Grammar for Learning In Practice
Grammar Activities
To find out if Ss can map meaning onto the target form and use the target form
in controlled situations: Writing activity
Suggested item
Read a description of how wine is made, which is taken from a winery leaflet.
In my country, we produce very good quality wine. We grow the vines mainly in the West of the country
where the winters are milder. People pick the grapes at the end of the summer – they have to pick
them at exactly the right time. When they have picked them they have to process the grapes very
quickly. We keep some wines for a long time to improve before we put it into bottles. We can buy our
wines in many other European countries.
Re-write it, using passive constructions as appropriate.
How important is using passive constructions as a factor in making the text more appropriate to
the context?
Grammar knowledge assessed
The use of the passive construction to indicate the lack of personal involvement
Source: Parrott, M. (2000). Grammar for English Language
Teachers. Cambridge: CUP, pp.295, 298.
Assessment of Grammar for Learning
• Grammar should be assessed in context as much as possible.
• Form-focused activities that assess grammar in context provide
more valid information about how well students understand the
meaning of target language items/structures.
• Grammar can also be assessed through reading, listening,
writing and speaking tasks, and tasks that require the integrative
use of language to obtain information about students’ ability to
process and produce the target language items/structures in
context.
Feedback on Grammar – Guiding Principles
Treat feedback as
opportunities for
students to learn
Focus Ss’ attention
on the grammarrelated
learning objectives
Provide both positive
& negative evidence
on students’
competence in using
the target
grammar item(s)
Provide focused
feedback (i.e. linked
to the learning
objectives)
Encourage Ss to
notice for
themselves
how their
language
compares with
the correct form
and use their
knowledge for
error correction
Resources for the Learning, Teaching & Assessment of Grammar –
Books and Articles (1)
Chan, S. S. Y. (2008). Grammatical consciousness-raising tasks for EFL secondary learners.
Modern English Teacher, 17, 2, 43-52.
Forsyth, W. & Lavender, S. (1995). Grammar Activities 2 – Upper Intermediate. Oxford:
Macmillan.
Frank, C., Rinvolucri, M. & Berer, M. (1982). Challenge to Think. Oxford: OUP.
Gerngross, G., Puchta, H. & Thornbury, S. (2006). Teaching Grammar Creatively. Cambridge:
CUP.
Hancock, M. (1998). Singing Grammar. Cambridge: CUP.
Jones, L. (1992). Communicative Grammar Practice. Cambridge: CUP.
Littlewood, W. (2000). Task-based Learning of Grammar. Hong Kong: HKBU.
Nunan, D. (2004). Task-based Language Learning. Cambridge: CUP.
Resources for the Learning, Teaching & Assessment of Grammar –
Books and Articles (2)
Obee, B. (1999). The Grammar Activity Book: A Resource Book of Grammar Games for
Young Students. Cambridge: CUP.
Parrott, M. (2000). Grammar for English Language Teachers. Cambridge: CUP.
Purpura, J.E. (2004). Assessing Grammar. Cambridge: CUP.
Rinvolucri, M. (1984). Grammar Games: Cognitive, Affective and Drama Activities for EFL
Students. Cambridge: CUP.
Thornbury, S. (1999). How to Teach Grammar. Harlow: Longman.
Watcyb-Jones, P. (1995). Grammar Games and Activities for Teachers. London: Penguin.
Resources for the Learning, Teaching & Assessment of Grammar –
Websites
BBC Learning English Grammar and Vocabulary
www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/learningenglish/teach/grammar
British Council Talk - Grammar
www.teachingenglish.org.uk/talk/questions/grammar
Grammar for English Language Teachers
www.cambridge.org/elt.gelt