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It’s an approach to research that examines a
concept or phenomenon from the perspective
of the individual who is experiencing it
The research purpose can range from
preliminary description of a concept or
phenomenon to development of a theory or
model of a process or pattern
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When little knowledge exists about the area
of research
When the nuanced perspective or personal
experience of a particular group or
population is needed
When the research aims require an
individualized and less structured interview
approach
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Focuses on ‘meaning’ from the research participant’s point
of view
Uses an inductive approach that is not informed by
existing theory but rather builds theory from observations
or interview data
◦ This is in contrast to quantitative approaches that test specific
hypotheses derived from existing theory or empirical data
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Acquires data in a naturalistic environment that facilitates
open discussion
Places few controls on other variables that may influence
the data – they are viewed as an essential part of the
context in which the phenomenon is being examined
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Grounded Theory
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Ethnography
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Phenomenology
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Stems from the field of sociology
Aims to generate explanatory models of
human social behavior
Avoids use of pre-existing theory that limits
the researcher’s ability to be open-minded
about what may emerge from the data
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Uses interviews, observations, and field notes
to collect data
Involves simultaneous collection and analysis
of data where hypotheses are generated and
tested with new data as it is acquired
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Stems from the field of anthropology
Examines a concept or phenomenon through
participants’ narratives about their lives and
the perspective of the culture of which they
are a part
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Uses participant observation, interview and
field notes as the basis of data collection
Encourages the researcher to spend time or
live with the group being studied to more
fully understand the phenomenon from a
cultural perspective
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Stems from the field of philosophy
Describes the concept or phenomenon being
studied as it is experienced by the person
(‘the lived experienced’)
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Uses multiple, in-depth conversations with
participants and detailed examples from their
experience as the source of data
Encourages the researcher to avoid any
preconceptions, presuppositions or
theoretical assumptions in collecting or
interpreting the data
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Interviews – use open-ended questions with
individuals or groups to obtain data and then
probe responses for more depth about a research
question
Observations – involve recordings and systematic
descriptions of behaviors, situations or events
using notes made during and after their
occurrence
◦ The observer may be a participant in the event/situation
or an ‘outsider’ who is given permission to be present
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Focus groups – use group interaction to obtain
data on participant’s beliefs, attitudes, behaviors
or experiences
Case studies – use individuals, events, programs
or organizations as ‘cases’ that are examined via
interviews, documents, observations, and
audiovisual or archival records
Narrative – uses in-depth interviews, journals,
letters and stories told by research participants
that ‘gives voice’ to particular needs or views
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Quantitative research uses probability sampling to ensure that a
sample is representative of the composition and profile of the
entire population being studied
Qualitative research more typically use purposive sampling,
whereby participants and other data sources are selected to best
meet the needs of the study
Purposive sampling identifies initial participants based on their
particular demographics or experience with the phenomenon
being studied
Further ‘theoretical sampling’ may occur as the study progresses
to include participants with specific experiences or views that are
identified as important from the emerging data
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Quantitative research uses sample size as one way to assure that
statistical tests have enough power to effectively test hypotheses
Qualitative research is more concerned with sampling units
which represent the number of times each participant is
interviewed or the number of observations that take place
These units are viewed as providing depth and detail in the data
– the more data obtained from each participant, the fewer
participants are generally needed
‘Saturation’ or redundancy in the data that is being collected is
often used to determine whether more participants or more
interviews/observations are needed
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Transcribed records of interviews, field notes or other
documents are carefully reviewed to identify
categories, themes, or models reflected in the data
Each approach to qualitative research has specific
techniques for reviewing the data, identifying codes
or categories, and developing larger themes or
models to explain the concept or phenomenon being
studied
All approaches involve comparison of transcripts with
original audio-records or input from the person
conducting the interviews/observations to assure
accuracy of the transcripts
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Qualitative researchers view characteristics such as
credibility, dependability, trustworthiness, and
transferability of the data and results as evidence of
validity and reliability
Researchers are expected to create an ‘audit trail’
that carefully describes the methods and procedures
used
Interviewers and observers are trained in techniques
to avoid bringing bias to the data collection process,
although some bias is assumed in all research
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Independent coding of data segments by different
members of the research team is used to compare the
consistency of categories or themes being identified
across researchers – differences are then discussed and
resolved
Situations or cases that don’t support emerging
conclusions are sought out to assure that interpretations
of the data consider varied perspectives
Summaries of the emerging results are given to
participants for evaluation of their accuracy and their
salience to the participants
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School of Dentistry
◦ Elizabeth Mertz, PhD – Assistant Professor,
Preventive and Restorative Dental Sciences
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School of Medicine
◦ Shelley Adler, PhD – Professor, Family & Community
Medicine
◦ Judith Barker, PhD – Professor, Anthropology,
History and Social Medicine
◦ Daniel Dohan, PhD – Professor, Institute for Health
Policy Studies
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School of Nursing
◦ Carol Dawson-Rose, RN, PhD - Associate Professor,
Community Health Systems
◦ Susan Kools, RN, PhD – Professor, Family Health
Care Nursing
◦ Howard Pinderhughes, PhD – Associate Professor,
Social and Behavioral Sciences
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School of Pharmacy
◦ Dorie Apollonio, PhD – Associate Professor, Clinical
Pharmacy
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Hodges BD, Kuper A, Reeves S. Discourse analysis. BMJ. 2008 Aug
7;337:a879.doi: 10.1136/bmj.a879. PMID: 18687729.
Kuper A, Lingard L, Levinson W. Critically appraising qualitative
research. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a1035. doi: 10.1136/bmj.a1035.
PMID: 18687726.
Kuper A, Reeves S, Levinson W. An introduction to reading and
appraising qualitative research. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a288. doi:
10.1136/bmj.a288. PMID: 18687727.
Lingard L, Albert M, Levinson W. Grounded theory, mixed
methods, and action research. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a567. doi:
10.1136/bmj.39602.690162.47. PMID: 18687728.
Reeves S, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Qualitative research
methodologies: ethnography. BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a1020. doi:
10.1136/bmj.a1020. PMID: 18687725.
Reeves S, Albert M, Kuper A, Hodges BD. Why use theories in
qualitative research? BMJ. 2008 Aug 7;337:a949. doi:
10.1136/bmj.a949. PMID: 18687730.