ELEMENTS TO CONSIDER
Audience
 Purpose
 Organization
 Style
 Flow/Coherence
 Other?

AUDIENCE
Who was the audience for the last thing you
wrote?
 Did you write for him/her or was he she just an
intermediary to your “real” audience.
 Ultimately who are you learning to write to?
 Who do you think will be your audience for what
you write on this course?
 Assignment – based on what you are currently
doing anyway so you will have a mixed audience
– how will you cope?
 Must know audiences expectations and prior
knowledge – what if you have more than one
audience?

PURPOSE
 Whatever
you current writing project is – what
is your purpose?
 What will be the purpose of anything you write
on this course?
 When you write something for your supervisor,
what are you doing? When you write
something for me, what are you doing?





To inform?
To display knowledge?
To challenge?
To provoke?
To respond?
ORGANISATION
1 Chronologically or Reverse-Chronologically
2 In spatial relation
3 From General to Specific (inductive)
4 From Specific to General (deductive)
5 From Least Important to Most Important
6 Through Division and Classification
7 By Cause and Effect
8 By Problem and Solution
9 Through Comparison or Analogy
10 Through Contrast
11 By Process
12 Through Definition
STYLE
Verbs – avoid phrasal (prepositional) – use single (often
Latinate) verbs
 Do task nine = p. 20
 Avoid Contractions
 Use formal negative forms:



The analysis didn’t yield any new results
The analysis yielded no new results
Avoid “run on expressions”: etc, and so forth, and so
on
 Avoid addressing reader as “you”
 Generally avoid use of “I”
 Limit use of direct questions: “What can be done
about this?”
 Place Adverbs within verb: “Very little is actually
known…”
 Use words efficiently/avoid being “wordy”

FLOW/COHERENCE
Use linking words/phrases
 See:

http://home.ku.edu.tr/~doregan/Writing/Linkers.html

Use appropriate punctuation
Whether you’re a student, teacher, or businessperson,
academic writing skills are necessary in today’s world.
 Essays, reports, presentations and research papers are just
some examples of documents written in the academic style.

WHAT IS ACADEMIC WRITING?
 In
brief, academic writing is 'structured
research' written by 'scholars' for other
scholars (with all university writers being
'scholars' in this context).
 Academic
writing is;
*factual,
*objective,
and most importantly,
*FORMAL.
WHAT ARE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL
WRITING AND INFORMAL WRITING?
Formal English is used mainly in
- academic writing, and
- business communications
 Whereas informal English is
-casual, and
-appropriate when communicating with friends and
family.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL WRITING
Formal Writing
Informal Writing
Distant Language
-Personal pronouns are
usually avoided.
-Passive voice is often
preferred.
Personal Language
-Personal Pronouns are
common.
-Personal feelings and
views are expressed.
-Active voice is often
preferred.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL WRITING
Formal Writing is ACCURATE:
-Precise evidence is presented.
-Facts are distinguished from opinions and feelings.
-Sources are carefully used and acknowledged.
-Sentences are clear and constructed carefully.
-Punctuation marks are accurately used.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL WRITING
Structure and vocabulary are formal;
-Full forms are used (What have, cannot...)
-More formal, abstract words with Latin or Greek origins
are often preferred.

YET INFORMAL WRITING IS...
 OFTEN
IMPRECISE;
-A personal viewpoint is expressed.
-Statements are not necessarily accurate.
-Facts and opinions are not necessarily distinct.
-Sources are used rarely and carelessly.
-Sentences are shorter, and not so carefully
constructed.
-Dramatic punctuation marks (?, !, ...) are
common.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FORMAL WRITING
Formal writing is TENTATIVE;
-There are few definite statements.
-Quick conclusions are avoided.

YET IN INFORMAL WRITING;
Structure and vocabulary are informal;
-Short forms and contractions (I’ve, he’s, can’t...) are often used.
-Shorter, less formal language is preferred (e.g. phrasal verbs,
compound words, idioms, slang and colloquial language).

HOWEVER, INFORMAL WRITING IS
ASSERTIVE;
-There are often definite statements and generalizations.
-Conclusions may be drawn from insufficient evidence.
FORMAL WRITING VS. INFORMAL WRITING
Formal Writing
Informal Writing
DISTANT LANGUAGE
PERSONAL LANGUAGE
ACCURATE
OFTEN IMPRECISE
FORMAL
STRUCTURE and
VOCABULARY
TENTATIVE
INFORMAL
STRUCTURE and
VOCABULARY
ASSERTIVE
THE FIRST DRAFT

The Short Research Paper
In an academic context, students are required to write
essays including references to other sources to support
their thesis statements and main ideas.
THE FIRST DRAFT
To support their ideas, they need to research what
authorities have to say about their topics and include
relevant support from outside sources by
- summarizing,
- quoting,
- or paraphrasing it.
THE FIRST DRAFT
However, you should always keep in mind that no one
else’s words are as important as yours!!!
 As a writer, you use summaries, quotes, or paraphrases
from others only to strenghten your own points.


Your instructor wants to see that you have researched
authorities’ ideas and findings, and that you have
integrated those with your own writing well.
DOING RESEARCH

-
CONCRETE SUPPORT
What is concrete support?
It is information from outside sources, such as
Books,
-
Articles
-
and Websites
that you insert into your essay to add weight to your arguments and
make them more convincing.
DOING RESEARCH
Guidelines for Choosing a Piece of Concrete Support
1.
Carefully consider the source; use well known
newspapers and magazines – you can aslo use online
versions of the well known ones.
FOR WEBSITES: BE EXTRA CRITICAL AND SKEPTICAL ABOUT THE
CREDIBILITY OF DOCUMENTS ON THE WEB.
a.
b.
Ask yourself these questions:
What is the source? If you cannot find it, do
not use the site.
If you can find the source, is it trustworthy?
i. University publications are usually
trustwothy.
ii. Government documents may or may not
be.
iii. Blogs, which are often free, written
discussions of various topics, are not always
reliable. Make sure the author is an expert in
the field before using his or her opinions.
2. In general, do not use information that is older than
five years.
3. Choose a passage that directly supports ypur point.
4. Do not take a passage out of context.
5. Do not use more than two pieces of concrete
support in one paragraph. Most of the paragragh
should be your own words.
6. Do not choose a passage that is too technical or field
specific for your reader to understand (Above all, you
need to understand it well in the firt place).
RESEARCH
the search for knowledge, or as any systematic
investigation, to establish novel facts, solve new or
existing problems, prove new ideas, or develop
new theories, usually using a scientific method.
"a studious inquiry or examination; especially :
investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts,
or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws” (The Merriam-Webster Online
Dictionary)
BASIC RESEARCH VS APPLIED RESEARCH
The primary purpose for basic research (as opposed to
applied research) is discovering, interpreting, and the
development of methods and systems for the
advancement of human knowledge.
SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
relies on the application of the scientific method,
a harnessing of curiosity.
 provides scientific information and theories for
the explanation of the nature and the properties
of the world around us.
 makes practical applications possible.
 is funded by public authorities, by charitable
organizations and by private groups, including
many companies.
 can be subdivided into different classifications
according to their academic and application
disciplines.

ARTISTIC RESEARCH

also seen as 'practice-based research', can take
form when creative works are considered both
the research and the object of research itself.

It is the debatable body of thought which offers
an alternative to purely scientific methods in
research in its search for knowledge and truth.
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

is embodied in the historical method.

Historians use primary sources and other
evidence to systematically investigate a topic,
and then to write histories in the form of
accounts of the past.
STRUCTURAL PROCESS.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Observations and Formation of the topic
Hypothesis
Conceptual definitions
Operational definition
Gathering of data
Analysis of data
Test, revising of hypothesis
Conclusion, reiteration if necessary
RESEARCH PROCESS
PHASES IN THE RESEARCH PROCESS:
Description (what, when, where)
 Classification (what is similar/different)
 Explanation (how and why)
 Prediction (what will be)
 Prescription (what should be)







Ethical analysis (norms/standards)
Policy formulation
Testing
Evaluation
Valuation
Visioning
RESEARCH METHODS
The goal of the research process is to produce new
knowledge. This process takes three main forms
Exploratory research, which structures and
identifies new problems
 Constructive research, which develops solutions to
a problem
 Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a
solution using empirical evidence

RESEARCH METHODS(CONT’D)
Research can also fall into two distinct types:
 Primary research (collection of data that does not exist
yet )
 Secondary research (summary, collation and/or synthesis
of existing research)
In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the
following two research methods can be applied
 Qualitative research (understanding of human behavior
and the reasons that govern such behavior)
 Quantitative research (systematic empirical
investigation of quantitative properties and phenomena
and their relationships)
ACADEMIC WRITING
is usually serious,
 is intended for a critical and informed audience,
 is based on closely-investigated knowledge,
 posits ideas or arguments,
 has an objective stance,
 clearly states the significance of the topic,
 is organized with adequate detail so that other
scholars could try to reproduce the results,
 consists of a number of text types and genres.

ACADEMIC DOCUMENT TYPES






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



Book, in many types and varieties.
Book chapter,
Book report,
Paper/ Articles.
Dissertation; usually between 6,000 and 20,000 words in length.
Essay; usually short, between 1,500 and 6,000 words in length.
Explication; usually a short factual note explaining some obscure part
of a particular work; e.g. its terminology, dialect, allusions or coded
references.
Research Article / Research Paper; longer essay involving library
research, 3000 to 6000 words in length.
Technical report
Thesis; completed over a number of years, often in excess of 20,000
words in length.
Translation.
PAPER-ARTICLE




In academic publishing, a paper is an academic work
that is usually published in an academic journal.
It contains original research results or reviews
existing results.
A paper, also called an article, will only be considered
valid if it undergoes a process of peer review by one or
more referees (who are academics in the same field) in
order to check that the content of the paper is suitable
for publication in the journal.
A paper may undergo a series of reviews, edits and
re-submissions before finally being accepted or
rejected for publication.
CATEGORIES OF PAPERS
Position paper, Vision paper
 Theory research paper
 Research paper
 Case report or Case Series
 Technical paper
 System paper
 Technical note
 Survey paper
 Species paper

POSITION PAPER
is an essay that presents an opinion about an
issue, typically that of the author or another
specified entity; such as a political party.
 Position papers are published in academia, in
politics, in law and other domains.
 Position papers range from the simplest format of
a letter to the editor through to the most complex
in the form of an academic position paper.
 Position papers are also used by large
organizations to make public the official beliefs
and recommendations of the group

RESEARCH PAPER
longer essay involving library research,
 3000 to 6000 words in length.
 may refer to:

Academic paper (also called scholarly paper), which is
published in academic journals and contains original
research results or reviews existing results
 Term paper, written by high school or college
students
 Thesis or dissertation, a document submitted in
support of a candidature for a degree or professional
qualification, presenting the author's research and
findings

TECHNICAL PAPER-JOURNAL ARTICLES
The exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but
often include:
 Letters (also called communications, and not to be confused with letters to
the editor) are short descriptions of important current research findings
that are usually fast-tracked for immediate publication because they are
considered urgent.
 Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings that
are considered less urgent or important than Letters.
 Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are complete
descriptions of current original research findings, but there are
considerable variations between scientific fields and journals – 80-page
articles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical computer science.
 Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the
result of current research and may be dozens or hundreds of pages with
mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data
electronically on the internet.
 Review articles do not cover original research but rather accumulate the
results of many different articles on a particular topic into a coherent
narrative about the state of the art in that field.




provide information about the topic
provide journal references to the original research.
may be entirely narrative,
may provide quantitative summary estimates resulting from the application of
meta-analytical methods.
SURVEY ARTICLE


is a paper that is a work of synthesis, published through the
usual channels (a learned journal or collective volume, such
as conference proceedings or collection of essays).
It stands outside the usual run of research papers, for two
reasons:
it is not presented as the author's original research, but as a
survey or summary of a field; and it is not necessarily subject
to the same degree of peer review.
 Sometimes short survey articles appear in the guise of book
reviews, where the context of the book is summarized first,
often at greater length than is devoted to the book.



In a survey article, the treatment of the subject is often less
detailed or in-depth than would be acceptable in a textbook,
and the topic may be one in which recent work requires
summary.
a survey article may lie somewhere between a personal
essay, and an encyclopedia article. The intention is to give
rapid access to material scattered over many papers.
REVIEW ARTICLES





Review articles, also called "reviews of progress," are
checks on the research published in journals.
Some journals are devoted entirely to review articles,
others contain a few in each issue, but most do not
publish review articles.
Such reviews often cover the research from the
preceding year, some for longer or shorter terms;
some are devoted to specific topics, some to general
surveys.
Unlike original research articles, review articles tend
to be solicited submissions, sometimes planned years
in advance.
They are typically relied upon by students beginning
a study in a given field, or for current awareness of
those already in the field.
THESIS OR DISSERTATION
A dissertation or thesis is a document
submitted in support of candidature for an
academic degree or professional qualification
presenting the author's research and findings.
 In some countries/universities, the word "thesis"
or a cognate is used as part of a bachelor's or
master's course, while "dissertation" is normally
applied to a doctorate, while in others, the
reverse is true.
 The term dissertation can at times be used to
describe a treatise without relation to obtaining
an academic degree. The term thesis is also used
to refer to the central claim of an essay or similar
work.

CONSTRUCTING AN INFORMED ARGUMENT
Consider what you know- different writing
assignments require different degrees of
knowledge
 Consider what you think

come up with a fresh observation.
 add sth of your own
 recognize that your writing should be analytical
rather than personal.


Subject to critical thinking process:
Summarize the first step
 is useful in helping you clarify what you know about a
topic
 is useful laying the foundation for the more complex
process to come.
 Evaluate
 an ongoing process
 Encourages to compare the topics
 Analyze
 To consider the parts of topics that most interests
 Examine how these parts relate to each other or to the
whole
 Synthesize
 To look for connections between ideas.
