Value conflicts and assumptions - 1

While an author usually offers explicit
reasons why he comes to a certain
conclusion, he also makes (implicit)
assumptions leading to it, on the basis of
his values.

By identifying value conflicts, we determine
whether the author’s value preferences
match our own, and can then dispute them.
Value conflicts and assumptions - 2

Value assumptions usually are:
– Hidden or unstated (in most cases).
– Taken for granted.
– Influential in determining the conclusion.
– Potentially deceptive.
Value conflicts and assumptions - 3

Clues for finding them:
– Investigate the author’s background.
– Ask “Why do the consequences of the author’s
position seem so important to him?”
– Search for similar social controversies, in order
to find analogue value assumptions.
– Use reverse role-playing, by taking his position.
– Look for usual value conflicts.
What are the descriptive
assumptions? - 1

When we identify descriptive assumptions,
we find the link between a reason and the
author’s conclusion, and it may be flawed.

We want to accept a conclusion only if
there are good reasons that lead to the
conclusion on the basis of the descriptive
assumptions.
What are the descriptive
assumptions? - 2

Clues to finding them:
– Keep thinking about the gap between
conclusion and reasons.
– Look for ideas that support reasons.
– Identify with the opposition.
– Recognize the potential existence of other
means for attaining the advantages referred
in the reasons.
– Learn more about the issues.
The Socratic method - 1

What do you mean by _____________ ?

How did you come to that conclusion?

Why do you believe that you are right?

What is the source of your information?

What assumption has led you to that
conclusion?
(see Wikipedia)
The Socratic method - 2

What happens if you are wrong?

Can you give me two sources who disagree
with you and explain why?

Why is this significant? Does it matter?

How do I know you are telling me the truth?

What is an alternate explanation for this
phenomenon?
Best Practice Precepts [... next]

Arguments

Possibility of the Impossible

Belief, Truth, and Reality

Knowledge, Belief, and Evidence

Error

Scientific Thinking

Bias
Arguments - 1
A.
Itemize opinions from all relevant sides of an
issue and collect logical arguments supporting
each.
B.
Break the arguments into their constituent
statements and draw out various additional
implications from these statements.
C.
Examine these statements and implications for
internal contradictions.
Arguments - 2
D.
Locate opposing claims between the various
arguments and assign relative weightings to
opposing claims:
–
Increase the weighting when the claims have
strong support, especially distinct chains of
reasoning or different news sources, decrease
the weighting when the claims have
contradictions.
– ...
Arguments - 3
– Adjust weighting depending on relevance of
information to central issue.
– Require sufficient support to justify any
incredible claims.
– Otherwise, ignore these claims when forming a
judgment.
E.
Assess the weights of the various claims.
Arguments - 4
F.
Once we have identified an argument, we identify
keywords or phrases within its reasoning, that
might have alternative well-defined meanings.
G.
We determine whether or not the author explicitly
uses one of those definitions. If not, and one of
them changes our acceptance of the conclusion,
then an ambiguity has been identified.
H.
This is an important step in accepting or not some
conclusion.
Possibility of the Impossible - 1
A.
Just because something is logically possible
doesn’t mean that it’s real.
B.
Just because a claim hasn’t been conclusively
refuted doesn’t mean that it’s true.
C.
Just because a claim hasn’t been conclusively
proven doesn’t mean that it’s false.
Possibility of the Impossible - 2
D.
Just because something seems physically
impossible doesn’t mean that it is.
E.
Just because something is physically possible
doesn’t mean that it’s real.
F.
One can’t believe impossible things.
G.
We have to live today by what truth we can
get today, and be ready tomorrow to call it
falsehood.