Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter 1 Section 1
Levels of Structural Organization
Essential Question:
What are the functions of the
organ systems of the human
body?
DEFINITIONS
ANATOMY

THE SCIENCE
OF BODY
STRUCTURES &
THE
RELATIONSHIPS
AMONG THEM
PHYSIOLOGY

THE SCIENCE
OF BODY
FUNCTIONS
HISTOLOGY

MICROSCOPIC
STRUCTURE of
TISSUES
EMBRYOLOGY

STUDY OF
EMBRYOS:
FROM THE
FERTILIZED
EGG  8TH
WEEK of
DEVELOPMENT
LEVELS
of
STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
CHEMICAL
CELLULAR
TISSUES
ORGAN
ORGAN SYSTEM
ORGANISM
LEVELS
of
STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION
Organ Systems of the Human Body:
1. Integumentary System
components
Skin
Nails
Hair
Sweat Glands
Oil Glands
functions
Protection
Regulates
temperature
Eliminates waste
Vit. D synthesis
Contains sensory
receptors
Integumentary System
2. Skeletal System
components
functions
Bones
 Joints
 Cartilage







Supports &
protects body
Surface for
muscles to attach
Movement
Vit. D synthesis
Stores minerals &
lipids
Houses cells that
produce blood
cells
Skeletal System
3. Muscular System
components
functions

Muscles:



Cardiac
Smooth
Skeletal
Produces
Movement
 Generates Heat

Muscular System
Nervous System
components
function
 Generate Action
 Brain
Potentials
 Spinal cord
 Regulates body
 Nerves
activities
 Special senses
 Maintains
 Vision
homeostasis
 Hearing
 Controls muscle
& gland
 Touch
contractions
 Smell
 Interprets stimuli
 Taste
Nervous System
Endocrine System
components

Glands (& cells) that
produce Hormones










Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Thyroid
Pancreas
Adrenal
Ovary
Testis
Thymus
Parathyroid
Pineal
functions
 Homeostasis
 Metabolism
 Growth &
development
 Reproduction
 Glucose, calcium,
phosphorous,
iodine levels
controlled
Endocrine System
Lymphatic (Immune) System
components
functions
Lymphatic
Vessels & Fluid
 Spleen
 Thymus
 Lymph Nodes
 Tonsils


Returns proteins
& fluid to blood
 Transports lipids
 Fights infections
 Recognizes “self”
Lymphatic (Immune) System
Cardiovascular System
components
 Blood
 Heart
 Blood Vessels:





Arteries
Arterioles
Capillaries
Venules
Veins
functions




Transports O2 &
nutrients to cells
Carries CO2 &
wastes away from
cells
Transports immune
system factors
Regulates:



pH
Temperature
Water balance
Cardiovascular System
Respiratory System
components
 Lungs
 Nose / Throat
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchial Tubes
functions
 Transfers O2 from
air to blood &
CO2 from blood to
exhaled air
 Regulates pH
 Produces sound
Respiratory System
Digestive System
components











Mouth/Teeth
Tongue
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine
Anus
Salivary Glands
Liver / Gallbladder
Pancreas
functions
 Physical &
chemical
digestion of food
 Absorption of
Nutrients
 Elimination of
solid wastes
Digestive System
Excretory (Urinary) System
components
 Kidneys
 Ureters
 Urinary Bladder
 Urethra
functions




Produces, Stores,
& Eliminates Urine
Regulates vol. &
chemical
composition of
blood
Helps maintain
normal pH
Helps regulate
production of
RBCs
Excretory (Urinary) System
Reproductive System
components
functions
 Production of
 Male
 Testes
Gametes 
 Epididymis
offspring
 Ductus Deferens
 Hormone
 Penis
production that
 Female
regulates
 Ovaries
reproduction &
 Fallopian Tubes
other body
 Uterus/ Cervix
 Vagina
processes

Vulva
Reproductive System
NONINVASIVE DIAGNOSTIC TECHNIQUES
INSPECTION
 PALPATION
 AUSCULTATION
 PERCUSSION

Noninvasive Diagnostic Techniques
AUSCULTATION

LISTENING TO
BODY SOUNDS
TO EVALUATE
FUNCTIONING
OF CERTAIN
ORGANS
PERCUSSION

TAPPING BODY
SURFACES
WITH FINGER
TIPS &
LISTENING TO
RESULTING
ECHO

WORK WITH A PARTNER AND DECIDE
WHAT ARE THE BASIC LIFE
PROCESSES OF LIVING HUMAN
BEINGS. YOU HAVE 3 MINUTES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
METABOLISM
RESPONSIVENESS
MOVEMENT
GROWTH
DIFFERENTIATION
REPRODUCTION
THERE ARE 6
BASIC LIFE
PROCESSES
THAT ARE
CHARACTERISTIC
OF LIVING
HUMANS
METABOLISM

the sum of all
chemical
reactions that
occur in the body
1.

2.

Catabolism
Breaking down
complex
substances 
simpler parts
Anabolism
Building up of
complex
substances from
simpler ones
RESPONSIVENESS

THE BODY’S
ABILITY TO
DETECT &
RESPOND TO
CHANGE
DIFFERENT CELLS
OF THE BODY
RESPOND IN
CHARACTERISTIC
WAYS:
 Neurons send
action potentials
 Muscle fibers
contract or relax

MOVEMENT

INCLUDES MOTION
OF:




WHOLE BODY
INDIVIDUAL ORGANS
CELLS
ORGANELLES
GROWTH

an increase in
body size due
either to:



Increase in # of
cells
Increase in size
of cells
Both
DIFFERENTIATION

IS THE
DEVELOPMENT
OF A CELL
FROM
UNSPECIALIZED
 SPECIALIZED
REPRODUCTION
REFERS TO
EITHER
1. NEW CELLS
MADE FOR
TISSUE
GROWTH,
REPAIR, OR
REPLACEMENT

2. PRODUCTION of
a NEW
INDIVIDUAL
Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter 1 Section 2
HOMEOSTASIS
Essential Question
How do negative &
positive feedback
systems help the body
maintain homeostasis?
HOMEOSTASIS
CONDITION OF EQUILIBRIUM
(BALANCE) IN THE BODY’S
INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT DUE TO
CEASELESS INTERPLAY OF THE
BODY’S MANY REGULATORY
PROCESSES

BODY FLUIDS
An important part
of maintaining
homeostasis is
keeping the
volume &
composition of
body fluids within
normal limits
(wnl)

Body Fluids
Divided into 2
compartments:
ICF
 Intracellular
fluid
(inside cell)
2. ECF
 Extracellular
Fluid
(outside cell)
1.
ICF


In the cytoplasm
Contains dissolved
chemicals



Enzymes
Ions (Na+, K+, Ca++,
Mg++, H+)
Glucose, Pyruvate
ECF

Found as
Interstitial fluid
(around cells)
 Plasma
smaller amounts:
 Lymph
 Cerebral Spinal
Fluid
 Synovial Fluid
 Aqueous Humor
 Vitreous Body

Control of Homeostasis

There are constant disruptions to
homeostasis from external sources &
from internal sources.
External
Internal
Temperature
Blood Glucose
O2 after race
Strong Emotions
Most commonly the nervous system
and/or the endocrine system are in
charge of maintaining homeostasis in
the body
Nervous System


Quick responder
Usually involves
sending action
potentials to organs
to counteract the
deviation from
balanced conditions
Endocrine System


Slower responder
Usually involves
secreting hormones
(messenger
molecules) into blood
which delivers them
to responding organ
Feedback Loops

Is a cycle of events
in which the status
of a body condition
is monitored,
evaluated,
changed, remonitored,
reevaluated, and
so on.
Receptor
1.

Feedback Systems
a body structure that monitors changes in
a controlled condition & send input to a
control center
Control Center
2.

Typically is the brain which sets range of
values w/in which a controlled condition
should be maintained, evaluates input from
receptors, & generates output commands
when necessary
Effector
3.

body structure that receives input from
control center & produces response that
acts on controlled condition
Feedback responses are either
negative or positive


Would you consider this feedback loop
to be (+) or (-)?
Negative Feedback Loop

Reverses the change
in a controlled
condition
Positive Feedback Loop

Reinforces the
change in the
controlled
condition
Homeostatic Imbalances Definitions
 A disorder is any abnormality of
structure or function

A disease is a specific term for an
illness characterized by a recognizable
set of signs and symptoms

Diagnosis is the science & skill of
distinguishing one disorder or disease
from another
Homeostatic Imbalances Definitions-2
 A symptom is a subjective change in
body function that is not apparent to
an observer

A sign is an objective change that can
be measured by an observer

Epidemiology: the science that deals
with why, when, & where diseases
occur
Work with a partner and decide
which of the following are signs and
which are symptoms








Fever
Rash
Nausea
Hunger
Low blood sugar
Anxiety
Pain
Itch
Signs & Symptoms
SIGNS
SYMPTOMS
FEVER
 RASH
 LOW BLOOD
SUGAR


ITCH
 NAUSEA
 ANXIETY
 HUNGER
 PAIN
Anatomy & Physiology
Chapter 1 Section 3
ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
ESSENTIAL QUESTION
What are the correct
anatomical descriptive terms
for: cavities of the body, & the
planes, sections, and
directional terms of the body?
Anatomical Position

Subject is:




Standing erect, facing observer
Head is level, eyes open & looking
forward, jaw relaxed
Feet flat on floor & toes forward
Arms at side with palms forward
Anatomical Position
What is wrong with these examples of
“anatomical position”?
SUPINE

BODY IS LYING FACE UP
PRONE

BODY IS LYING FACE DOWN
REGIONAL NAMES
Regional Names
Head
1.


Face: front of head
Skull: encloses & protects brain
Neck
2.

supports & attaches head to trunk
Trunk
3.

chest, abdomen, pelvis
Upper limbs
4.

shoulder, axilla, arm, lower arm, wrist, &
hand
Lower limbs
5.


buttock, thigh, knee, lower leg, ankle, &
foot
SEE HANDOUTS FOR COMPLETE LISTING
Directional Terms
(many have opposite meanings)
1.

2.

3.

anterior
nearer to front
superior
toward head or
upper part of a
structure
medial
closer to
midline
1.

2.

3.

posterior
nearer to back
inferior
away from head
or lower part of
a structure
lateral
farther from
midline
Directional Terms-2
1.

2.

3.

proximal
nearer to
attachment of
limb to trunk
ipsilateral
On same side of
body as another
structure
distal
 farther from
attachment of
limb to trunk
2. contralateral
1.

superficial
toward or at
surface
on opposite
side of body as
another
structure
3. deep

away from
surface
BODY PLANES


are imaginary cuts
through the body or
organs
Need to know:

sagittal
midsagittal
 parasagittal




frontal/ coronal
transverse/axial/
horizontal
oblique
Body or Tissue Sections

One flat surface of a 3-D structure
or a cut along a plane
Body Cavities
are spaces w/in the body that helps
protect, separate, & support
internal organs
 bones, muscles, ligaments, and
membranes help separate body
cavities

The Cranial Cavity
formed by skull
 protects brain

The Vertebral Cavity
formed by
vertebrae
 protects spinal
cord &
beginning of
spinal nerves

The Thoracic Cavity

formed by
 ribs
 chest muscles
 sternum
 thoracic vertebrae
within it are 3
smaller
cavities:
1. pleural
cavity
2. pericardial
cavity
3. mediastinum

The Thoracic Cavity
The Pleural Cavities
there are 2,
right, left
 each surrounds
a lung
 serous
membrane of
the pleural
cavity is called
the pleura

Serous Membranes
Covers the organs (viscera) of the
thoracic & abdominal cavities &
lines the walls of thorax & abdomen
 Parietal layer: lines the walls
 Visceral layer: covers the organs


Serous Fluid: thin, watery, fluid
separates the two reducing friction
The Pericardial Cavity
surrounds heart
 serous of
pericardial
cavity is the
pericardium

Medistinum
in central
portion of
thoracic cavity
between lungs
 extends from
sternum to
vertebrae &
from neck to
diaphragm


contains:
 heart
 thymus
 esophagus
 trachea
 large blood
vessels
Mediastinum
The Abdominopelvic Cavity
Abdominal Cavity
Contains:
 Stomach
 Spleen
 Liver
 Gallbladder
 Small Intestine
 most of Large
Intestine
serous membrane
called peritoneum
Pelvic Cavity
Contains:
 Urinary Bladder
 part of Large
Intestine
 internal organs of
reproduction
Abdominopelvic Quadrants

To insure
communication
clinicians divide
abdomen into 4
quadrants by
drawing imaginary
lines through
umbilicus

Right Upper Quadrant
(RUQ)

Left Upper Quadrant
(LUQ)

Right Lower Quadrant
(RLQ)

Left Lower Quadrant
(LLQ)
Regions & Quadrants of Abdomen
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Chapter 1 Section 4
MEDICAL IMAGING
Essential Question:
How would you describe the
importance of medical imaging
procedures in the evaluation of
organ functions and the
diagnosis of disease?
MEDICAL IMAGING

1. X-RAYS


AVAILABLE SINCE THE 1940’S
shoot single barrage of X-Rays through
body producing image of interior
structures on X-Ray sensitive film
X-Rays
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.
inexpensive
quick
simple to
perform
provide
significant
information
Disadvantages
1.
2.
less detail than
other options
chronic
exposure
causes cancer
2. Computed Tomography (CT) Scan


is computer-assisted radiography in
which x-ray beam traces an arc at many
angles around a section of the body
result is a transverse section of body
CT Scan
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
Visualizes soft
tissues & organs
with more detail
Can build 3-D
views of
structures
Effective as a
screening tool
Disadvantages
Expensive
 Equipment large
 More highly
skilled
technicians
required

CT Scan Machine
3. Magnetic Resonance Imaging
MRI
Body is exposed to high-energy
magnetic field which causes all the
protons (H+) in body fluids & tissues
to align with poles of magnetic field
 Then a pulse of radio waves “reads”
these ion patterns & creates a colorcoded image

MRI Image & Machine
MRI
Advantages
1.
2.
3.
Shows finer
detail for soft
tissues
Safer (no xrays)
Can measure
blood flow
(heart vessels,
brain)
Disadvantages
Expensive
 Large machine
 Cannot use for
patients with
metal in their
body
 Highly skilled
technicians

4. Ultrasound or Sonogram
High-frequency sound waves reflect off
body tissues
 Image may be still or moving

Ultrasound
Advantages
1. Small portable
machines
2. Safe, even in
pregnancy
3. Can observe
organs in action
Disadvantages
1.
2.
Best for organs
that have a
pocket of fluid to
create “echo”
Cannot go
through bone
5. Positron Emission Tomography
PET Scan
Positrons = + charged particle
 Patient is injected with substance
that contains positrons
 Positrons collide with (-) charged
electrons in body tissues which
produces gamma rays
 Gamma rays are photographed by
gamma cameras creating image

PET Scan
PET Scan
Advantages
1.
can study the
physiology of
an organ
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
large machine
expensive
highly skilled
technicians
SINGLE-PHOTON-EMISSION
COMPUTERIZED TOMOGRAPHY
SPECT



radioactive
substance is
injected into a vein
& carried to the
tissue to be studied
computer
constructs an image
greater the intensity
of color on image
the more active the
tissue is
SPECT
Advantages
1.
2.
studies activity
of organ or
tissue
useful for
heart, kidney,
thyroid, lungs,
liver
Disadvantages
1.
2.
3.
very expensive
large machine
highly skilled
technicians
ENDOSCOPY
 visual examination
of inside of body
cavity or organs
using a lighted
instrument with
lenses
 image is viewed
through an
eyepiece or on
monitor
Endoscopy
Advantages
1.
direct
visualization
so can biopsy,
remove, or
monitor
pathology in
tissue
Disadvantages
1.
invasive
procedure so
add risk of
injury,
infection,
unintended
damage to
organ or tissue
Types of Endoscopy
Examples
1.
2.
3.
Colonoscopy
Arthroscopy
Laparoscopy
Target
1.
2.
3.
colon
synovial joint
abdominopelvic
cavity