Market Structures
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Chapter 7: Market Structures
KEY CONCEPT
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A market structure is an economic model that helps economists
examine the nature and degree of competition among businesses in
the same industry.
WHY THE CONCEPT MATTERS
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The level of competition in a market has a major impact on the prices
of products. The more sellers compete for your dollars, the more
competitive prices will be.
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What Is Perfect Competition?
The Characteristics of Perfect Competition
KEY CONCEPTS
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Economists classify markets based on how competitive they are
Market structure—economic model of competition within an industry
Perfect competition—ideal model of a market economy
– economists assess how competitiveness of market by where it
falls short
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The Characteristics of Perfect Competition
Characteristic 1: Many Buyers and Sellers
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No one buyer or seller has power to control price in the market
Many sellers means buyers can choose a producer with better price
Many buyers means sellers can all sell product at market price
– lack of demand will not cause sellers to lower prices
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The Characteristics of Perfect Competition
Characteristic 2: Standardized Product
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Standardized product—one producer’s product is identical to
another’s
Perfect substitutes include
– agricultural products, such as wheat, eggs, milk
– basic commodities, such as notebook paper, gold
Price is only basis for consumer choice
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The Characteristics of Perfect Competition
Characteristic 3: Freedom to Enter and Exit Markets
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Producers can enter market when profitable and exit when
unprofitable
Regulations do not restrict businesses from entering or exiting
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The Characteristics of Perfect Competition
Characteristic 4: Independent Buyers and Sellers
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Neither buyers nor sellers join together to influence price
Supply and demand set the equilibrium price
Independent action ensures that market stays competitive
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The Characteristics of Perfect Competition
Characteristic 5: Well-informed Buyers and Sellers
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Buyers can compare prices
Sellers know what competitors charge, what buyers willing to pay
Price taker—seller that accepts market price set by supply and
demand
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Competition in the Real World
KEY CONCEPTS
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No perfectly competitive markets; none meet all conditions
Imperfect competition—market structures that lack one or more of
the conditions
Some markets come close, such as some wholesale farm products
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Competition in the Real World
Example 1: Corn
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Thousands of growers; decide only how much to produce at market
price
Many buyers; standardized product; wholesale price easy to
determine
In reality, several factors can interfere:
– government subsidies; farmers or buyers sometimes band
together
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Competition in the Real World
Example 2: Beef
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Many producers; each cut of beef is standard
– sellers can adjust only their production
Competition somewhat imperfect because
– ranchers may join together to influence price
– producers may say products differ due to factors such as feed
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Reviewing Key Concepts
Explain the differences between the terms in each of
these pairs:
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market and market structure
perfect competition and imperfect competition
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The Impact of Monopoly
Characteristics of a Monopoly
KEY CONCEPTS
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Monopoly—market structure with one seller, no substitutes for
product
Cartel—organization of sellers that agree to set prices, limit output
Price maker—business without competitors, can set prices
Barrier to entry—obstacle to entering market
– include government regulations, size, resources, technology
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Characteristics of a Monopoly
Characteristic 1: Only One Seller
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Single business controls supply of product without close substitutes
De Beers cartel controlled diamond market in 20th century because
– produced over half of world’s diamond supply
– bought up diamonds from smaller producers to resell
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Characteristics of a Monopoly
Characteristic 2: A Restricted, Regulated Market
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Government regulations allow single firm to control market
De Beers worked with South African government
– restricted access of other producers
– controlled supply of diamonds
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Characteristics of a Monopoly
Characteristic 3: Control of Prices
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Monopolists can control prices because there are no close substitutes
During economic downturns, De Beers created artificial shortage
– by withholding diamonds from market, kept prices higher
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Types of Monopolies
KEY CONCEPTS
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Natural monopoly—cost of production lowest with only one producer
Government monopoly—government owns and runs or permits only
one producer
Technological monopoly—one firm owns invention, technology,
method
Geographic monopoly—no other sellers within a region
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Types of Monopolies
Example 1: Natural Monopoly: A Water Company
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In some markets, inefficient to have companies competing
Example: public utilities that require complex systems
– economies of scale—average production cost falls as production
grows
Government both supports and regulates
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Types of Monopolies
Example 2: Government Monopoly: The Postal Service
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Government runs some businesses that provide goods and services
– private firms cannot or do not want to provide because of low
profits
Example: Postal Service has sole right to deliver first-class mail
New services and technologies now compete
– private delivery companies, fax, e-mail, online bill paying
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Types of Monopolies
Example 3: Technological Monopoly: Polaroid
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Patent—legal registration of invention; gives inventor sole rights
– enables businesses to recover costs of development
Monopoly lasts for time limit of patent or until substitute invented
Patent let Polaroid keep Kodak out of instant-photography market
– simpler cameras, digital cameras, quick processing reduced its
market
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Types of Monopolies
Example 4: Geographic Monopoly: Professional Sports
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Sports leagues tie teams to cities, regions; limit number of teams
– owners can charge high ticket prices, sell team merchandise
Physical isolation—no other supplier in area—lets owner control
prices
Very small market may not support two businesses of same type
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Profit Maximization by Monopolies
KEY CONCEPTS
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Monopoly cannot set prices too high
– faces downward-sloping demand curve
– raises equilibrium price by producing less than competitive market
would
Most countries have laws to prevent monopolies
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Profit Maximization by Monopolies
EXAMPLE: Drug Manufacturer
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Drug companies maximize profits during patent period
– afterwards, others market cheaper generic versions
Schering-Plough strongly marketed non-drowsy antihistamine Claritin
– made up to $3 billion per year worldwide with patent
– after patent ended sales dropped to about $1 billion per year
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Reviewing Key Concepts
Explain the differences between the terms in each of
these pairs:
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monopoly and cartel
natural monopoly and geographic monopoly
technological monopoly and government monopoly
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Other Market Structures
Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition
KEY CONCEPTS
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Most real markets fall between perfect competition and monopoly
Monopolistic competition—many sellers offer similar products
– one of most common market structures
– product differentiation—sellers try to distinguish their products
from similar ones
– nonprice competition—use factors other than price to attract
customers
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Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition
Characteristic 1: Many Sellers and Many Buyers
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Many sellers and many buyers
– fewer sellers than perfect competition but enough for true
competition
Each seller chooses product to make, amount to make, price to
charge
– examples include T-shirts, batteries, hamburger restaurants
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Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition
Characteristic 2: Similar but Differentiated Products
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Consumer loyalty gained with unique product or apparent difference
Sellers use market research to decide how to differentiate product
Chains use sophisticated techniques—learn consumer lifestyles,
tastes
– focus groups—moderated discussions with small groups of
consumers
– survey large numbers of consumers
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Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition
Characteristic 3: Limited Control of Prices
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Differentiation gives producers limited control of prices
– low price distinguishes some products
– name brands or better quality priced higher
Consumers pay extra if they perceive important enough difference
– will switch to substitute if price goes too high
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Characteristics of Monopolistic Competition
Characteristic 4: Freedom to Enter or Exit Market
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No great barriers to entry in monopolistically competitive markets
– when firms earn profit, other firms enter and increase competition
– competition can be difficult for small businesses against large ones
Some firms start to take losses
– signal that it is time to exit the market
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Characteristics of an Oligopoly
KEY CONCEPTS
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Oligopoly—market structure with only a few sellers offering similar
product
Less competitive than monopolistic competition
– each firm has large market share—percent of total sales in the
market
Few firms due to high start-up costs—expenses of entering market
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Characteristics of an Oligopoly
Characteristic 1: Few Sellers and Many Buyers
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A few firms dominate market
– industry is oligopoly if four firms control 40 percent of market
About half of manufacturing industries in United States are oligopolies
– include breakfast cereals, soft drinks, movies, industrial products
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Characteristics of an Oligopoly
Characteristic 2: Standardized or Differentiated Products
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Many industrial products standardized such as flat glass, aluminum
– firms differentiate by brand name, service, location
Many consumer goods are differentiated
– use marketing strategies, such as focus groups, surveys
– create brand-name products that can be marketed widely
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Characteristics of an Oligopoly
Characteristic 3: More Control of Prices
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Each firm’s decisions about supply and price affect entire market
If one firm lowers prices, others probably will too
– no firm gains market share from price drop; all risk losing profits
If one raises prices, others may not in order to gain market share
Anticipate competitors’ response to price, output, marketing changes
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Characteristics of an Oligopoly
Characteristic 4: Little Freedom to Enter or Exit Market
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High start-up costs—such as factories, warehouses—make entry
hard
– new firm may sell on small scale; hard to compete with established
ones
Established firms have resources, patents, economies of scale
High investment by firms in oligopoly make exit difficult
– operations too vast, complex to sell and reinvest easily
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Comparing Market Structures
KEY CONCEPTS
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Each market structure has benefits, problems
– each creates different balance of power between producers and
consumers
Consumer has most influence, little choice in perfect competition
Consumer has some influence, most choice in monopolistic
competition
Consumer has limited influence, some choice in oligopolies
Producers have the most control in a monopoly
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Joan Robinson: Challenging Established
Ideas
Explaining Real-World Competition
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In 1933, Robinson published The Economics of Imperfect
Competition
Described oligopoly, monopsony (market with many sellers, one
buyer)
Her theory reflected modern market economies in which
– firms compete through product differentiation and advertising
– many industries are controlled by oligopolies
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Reviewing Key Concepts
Explain the relationship between the terms in each of
these pairs:
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product differentiation and nonprice competition
focus group and market share
oligopoly and start-up costs
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Regulation and Deregulation Today
Promoting Competition
KEY CONCEPTS
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Government regulation—rules or laws that control business behavior
– promotes competition and protects consumers
Antitrust legislation—define monopolies, allow government to control
or break them up
Trust—group of firms combined to reduce competition
Merger—joining of firms or purchase of one firm by another
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Promoting Competition
Origins of Antitrust Legislation
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Late 1800s, trusts dominated oil, steel, railroad industries
1890 Sherman Antitrust Act enabled government to control
monopolies
– regulate practices that might reduce competition
Standard Oil Company had 90 percent of industry; set output, prices
– forced to give up control of 33 companies
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Promoting Competition
Antitrust Legislation Today
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Federal Trade Commission, Justice Department enforce antitrust
legislation
– tend to support mergers that benefit consumers
– tend to block mergers that concentrate market in hands of few
firms
To evaluate potential merger, look at how market is defined
– market share before and after merger; if competitors get
eliminated
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Ensuring a Level Playing Field
KEY CONCEPTS
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Government ensures business practices do not reduce competition
– with less competition, prices go up, supply goes down
In United States, laws prohibit most of these practices
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Ensuring a Level Playing Field
Prohibiting Unfair Business Practices
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Price fixing—competing businesses collaborate to set prices
– alternatively, they might agree to restrict output to drive up prices
Market allocation—businesses divide up market, control own territory
Predatory pricing—set prices below cost to drive out small producers
– used by cartels or large producers
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Protecting Consumers
KEY CONCEPTS
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Cease and desist order—requires firm to stop unfair business
practice
– issued when business behavior is unfair to competitors or
consumers
Public disclosure—requires businesses to reveal product information
– enables consumers to make informed buying decisions
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Protecting Consumers
Consumer Protection Agencies
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Government protects consumers by regulating different aspects of
business
Federal Trade Commission promotes competition, prevents unfair
practices
Other agencies regulate specific industries, protect consumers
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Deregulating Industries
KEY CONCEPTS
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20th century regulation focused on public service industries
Deregulation—reduces or removes government oversight and control
Deregulation may lead to fewer consumer protections
Usually results in lower prices since markets become more
competitive
– with regulated prices, firms have no incentive to reduce costs
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Deregulating Industries
Deregulating the Airlines
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Airline Deregulation Act of 1978 removed control of routes and rates
Benefits
– New carriers entered market: greater efficiency, lower prices
– More people chose plane travel
Problems
– Quality of service declined; airports became crowded
– Multiple bankruptcies resulted: layoffs, lower wages, lost pensions
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Reviewing Key Concepts
Explain the differences between the terms in each of
these pairs:
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trust and merger
price fixing and predatory pricing
regulation and deregulation
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Competition in Gadgets and Gizmos
Background
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Billions of people around the world own cell phones. As the market
becomes saturated, manufacturers are adding new gadgets and
gizmos to increase sales.
What’s the Issue?
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What affects your selection of a cell phone?
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Competition in Gadgets and Gizmos
{continued}
Thinking Economically
1. Compare the product described in document A and the one illustrated
in B. Are cell phones likely to become more or less complex? Explain
why or why not.
2. Which of the four market structures best fits the market for cellular
phones? Use evidence from documents A and C to explain your
answer.
3. In documents A and C, compare the role that market research plays
in the development of new products. Use evidence from the
documents.
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