1
PSY 6450 Psychology of Work
Unit 1 Schedule:
Today and Monday: Lecture
Wednesday, 9/10: Exam
2
PSY 6450 Unit 1
• Some facts and a little history of I/O
• Aamodt
• Certification and licensing of behavior analysts
• Dickinson paper
• Differences between I/O psychology and OBM
• Bucklin et al. (2000)
• Written essential material into SOs
• History of OBM
• Dickinson (2000)
• 20th anniversary issue of JOBM
New name for our I/O programs: IOBM MA and Ph.D.
3
SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields, #1
• The application of psychological principles
distinguishes I/O from related business fields
• HRM texts advocate using unstructured interviews
for selection; I/O has shown these are much less
effective than other methods
• Business advocates the use of Myers-Briggs to
select and coach employees; I/O does not
• Business advocates the use of “stretch” goals; I/O
does not
• Business advocates EOM programs; I/O does not
(2 differences and explain each, giving examples; little hard to abstract out)
4
Daniels’ Oops: 13 management
practices that waste time and money
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Employee of the month
programs and most
other reward/recognition
programs
Stretch goals
Performance appraisal
Ranking employees
Rewarding things a
dead man can do
Salary & hourly pay
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
(no accidents, no errors, be at your workstation)
You did a good job,
but…
The sandwich method of
providing feedback
(good, bad, good)
Overvaluing smart,
talented people
The budget process
Promoting people no
one likes
Downsizing
Mergers, acquisitions
(Enron, JPMorgan, 5.8 billion trading/investment)
5
SO 1: I/O vs. Business Fields, #2
• I/O focuses on factors that affect the people;
business focuses on factors that affect running
a business*
• Business courses: accounting, finance, marketing,
business law, corporate policy,
• Psychology courses: training and development,
selection and placement, systems analysis,
experimental methodology (permitting evaluation of
interventions)
*However, there is clearly overlap: Psychology of work vs.
organizational behavior and management; systems analysis vs.
business process management and supply chain management,
for example.
(recommend that all of our students take accounting)
6
Four basic areas of I/O psychology*
(NFE)
• Personnel Selection and Placement
• Main area of emphasis for I/O
• Not emphasized in OBM
• Training and Instructional Design
• Largest area of employment for MAs
• Performance Management
• Focus of this course
• Systems Analysis - Organizational Development
*these differ from Aamdot’s list: his are more general
(Note: not counseling or clinical. EAP programs - counseling/clinical/social work degrees; recent
health and wellness programs - yes)
7
SO 3: The I and O in I/O Psychology
• Industrial
• Focuses on the individual worker/position
• Determining the requirements of each job/position
• Selecting individuals who have those requirements
• Training individuals to improve their competency
• Organizational
• Any aspect of the organization and structure that
affects performance and/or satisfaction
• Reward/pay systems
• Feedback systems
• Organizational structure (systems analysis)
(distinction that has little relevance today, overlap between the two, but remains in the name)
8
Some I/O history: First area of application
• SO4A: The oldest area of application and the one
that still dominates today is Personnel Selection
& Placement.
• Main difference between I/O programs and OBM
programs.
• SO4B: Personnel Selection got started by
selection and placement of military personnel in
WWI & WWII
• Clinical tests, typically intelligence and personality tests,
and used them to test recruits
(emphasis influences other aspects of training - statistical methods used to determine reliability
and validity of tests - job relatedness; SO8 – Aamodt, at least 5 stats courses in PH.D. IO)
9
SO5: Putting the “O” in I/O psychology
• One of the greatest episodes in the formation
of I/O according to many:
Hawthorne Studies in the 1930s
• Heretofore restricted to personnel issues such as
selection and training (the I in I/O)
• Expanded to:
• Human relations
• Quality of work environment
• Attitudes
• Satisfaction and group morale
10
SO6: Personnel Selection
(NFE)
• I/O expanded greatly
when Congress passed
Title VII Civil Rights
Act, 1964
• Banned unfair
discrimination against
minorities and females
• I/O has a “lock” on
personnel selection as
a profession
Other EEO Laws:
•Age Discrimination
•Vietnam/Disabled
Veterans
•Americans with
Disabilities Act
(overlap between I/O and OBM and other areas: mgt – 0% MBA programs, human resources,
Industrial engineer - selection remains I/O. don’t deal with laws and issues here, personnel selection)
11
SO9: Where do I/O psychologists work?
• 10A: Ph.D.s (learn top three for exam)
• Higher education
40%
• Consulting firms
25%
• Private Industry
24%
• Public Government
8%
• 10B: MAs (learn top two for exam)
• Private Industry
44%
• Consulting firms
37%
• Public Government
11%
• Higher education
<1%
(note difference PhD universities vs. industry; difference MA, private, more likely to work in private
business with MA; consulting firms, interesting data, first time HSS)
12
SO10: $$ Salaries - SIOP Survey 2012
(NFE)
Median
Starting
Median
Overall
Male
Median
Female
Median
$120,000
$103,000
PhD
$78,000
$118,000
MA
$64,000
$82,500
$ PhD median starting same for applied & profs
$ Profs significantly lower than applied
$ Female median is 15% lower than males
but first significant decrease-and least since-1982!
(High starting salary for MAs - $40-$50 K; last pertains to PhD&MA combined; mean salaries 20% lower; about 50% of students
are now female; 14% when I got my IO degree in 1977; WMU figures in Sos; expt inst. ranks lower; fulls paid 12% less than males;
Differences are less than in the past; university has gender equity committees looking into this/reduce it. Dr. Baker & Fuqua)
13
Facts about I/O psychology
• SO11: Primary professional organization
for I/O psychology
Society for Industrial/Organizational Psychology
Web site: www.siop.org
Also, SIOP is Division 14 of APA
(Behavior Analysis is Division 25)
14
Facts about I/O psychology
• SO12: Primary journal for I/O
psychology (NFE)
Journal of Applied Psychology
Note list of 22 journals in Table 1.5
JOBM is not included
(little cross-fertilization between IO psychology and OBM:
At this point in time most OBM practitioners/students don’t know much about IO and vice versa
2011 special issue of JOBM devoted to integration; well worth reading)
15
Facts about I/O psychology
• SO13: Percentage of PhD psychologists
who are I/O psychologists
4%
50% of APA’s 96,000 psychologists are
clinical, counseling and school psychologists
Thus, it’s not surprising that people don’t
know about us
16
SO14: Growth of IO (nfe)
Year
# of IO psychologists
1939
100
1960
760
1991
3,000
2008
7,500
Year
MA programs
PhD programs
1986
23
44
2008
75
65
(I graduated in 1977 with my MA degree in IO)
17
SO15: Licensing of IO Psychologists
(this slide NFE)
• Very different than clinical psychology
• Varies from state to state
• Some require it, most don’t
• Some states preclude it - i.e., MI
• Educational and experiential requirements focus on
clinical/counseling courses and internships
• Academics (who do not practice) do not have
to be licensed
(next few sos, licensing in IO psychology, and certification/licensing in BA)
18
SO15: SIOP opposes licensing - why?
• SIOP maintains that I/O psychologists
• Should be able to be licensed
• But should not be required to be licensed
• Main reason why licensing is not needed
• Licensing is designed to protect the public in health
care areas (mental and behavioral health). I/O
psychologists are not health care providers and do not
deal with vulnerable populations.
• Same argument OBM practitioners are making about
license laws for behavior analysts
• SIOP successfully blocked many states from
passing license laws ~15 years ago
(licensing originally to protect public - vulnerable populations, health care areas
Next slide, certification/licensing of behavior analysts,)
19
Certification vs. Licensing, Behavior Analysts
• Differences
• Certification is voluntary, licensing is legally required
• Certification is overseen by an international
credentialing board, the BACB, and licensing is
overseen by states
• Because of that the requirements for certification are the same
from state to state and, in fact, globally; while the requirements
for licensing vary from state to state, just like the licensing of I/O
psychologists
(independent from ABAI; compliance overseen by licensing boards established by the state;
Legal penalties for violating license laws , 19 states have license laws)
20
Requirements for Certification and
Licensing are similar: Why?
• Certification predated licensing
• National certification began ~1998, licensing began ~2009/2010
• BACB anticipated licensing and developed and posted a “model”
license law on its web site to assist states
• States: why re-invent the wheel when a well-respected
organization had already developed standards and an exam?
• Certified behavior analysts were typically the ones who
advocated for license laws and spearheaded their adoption
(In almost all states, the requirements for licensing are the same or similar to requirements for certification;
some states, identical; in a few you must be certified to be licensed; any event, similar. )
21
SOs16 & 17: Why license laws?
• To protect at risk-individuals seeking behavior analytic
clinical services
• To accompany autism insurance laws that have recently
been passed, specifying and regulating the individuals
who can receive insurance reimbursement
• Some behavior analysts believe license laws should
protect all consumers, not just at-risk individuals (also
thus protecting the field in general)
• Some believe that we will not achieve the same status
as other professionals (doctors, licensed clinical
psychologists) unless we are licensed
(first two are the main ones; some states use certification as standard;
Employees, athletes, college students, etc.;because of these differing views, two broad category of laws)
22
SO19: Two types of laws
• Restrictive laws
• Only behavior analysts who provide clinical services to individuals
need to be licensed, for example
• Those who work with children diagnosed with autism
• Those who work with individuals with developmental and intellectual
disabilities
• Those who work with seniors with dementia
• Broad title and practice laws
• You cannot call yourself a behavior analyst (title) or practice
behavior analysis (practice) unless you are licensed
(Skip to 19, come back to 18. in general, two types of laws, although one state has a “title” law;
first type relates to the first 2reasons on the previous slide, the last type relates to all four reasons;)
23
States that have each type (according to Dr. D.)
• Restrictive laws: 14 states
• Alabama, Alaska, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Nevada, New
York, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode
Island, Tennessee, and Virginia
• Michigan has a restrictive law pending (it is in the legislature)
• Broad title and practice laws: 5 states
• Arizona, Kentucky, Massachusetts, Missouri, Wisconsin
• Ten laws were passed last year: all were restrictive
• Due to revision of the BACB model license law in 2012, including
wording for the potential exclusion of applied behavior analysts
who provide non-clinical services, and explicitly OBM practitioners
and applied animal trainers
• Seems to be the trend (although again I could be wrong)
(I could very well be wrong; it is hard to interpret the laws; talk more about this in the article)
24
SO18: Reasons why most OBMers are not
certified and oppose licensing
• OBM does not deal with at-risk individuals (same reason
SIOP opposes licensing for I/O psychologists)
• No insurance reimbursement is at stake – OBM clients
are private pay and will always be private pay, thus our
clients do not require it
• Except for basic behavioral principles, the current
certification process, particularly the exam, is not relevant
for those in OBM
(next slide, the fourth reason)
25
SO18: Reasons why most OBMers are not certified
and oppose licensing: A fourth reason
• *Licensing, given the current requirements, would detract
from the training of our students
• OBM students need different skills and training than those currently
required for licensing (and certification)
• Without increasing the number of credit hours in our graduate
training program, we could not train our students as well
(Note that I did not say are opposed to certification: that is voluntary. Also, I know I said 3 reasons in the Sos
the fourth, which I consider to be the most important is actually an implication or result of the third)
26
SOME MAJOR DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN
I/O AND OBM
Bucklin et al., 2000
(only highlight some important differences - embedded those in sos)
27
Purpose
To identify similarities and differences with respect to
topics and research methods used in OBM and traditional
I/O psychology
28
Method
• JAP
• Authors reviewed every article in JAP between 1987 &
1997 (N = 997)
• Classifications were primarily derived from Nolan et al.
(1999) who previously analyzed articles in JOBM for the
same years (N=119)
• JOBM
• JAP classification results were compared to JOBM data
collected by Nolan et al. (1999)
29
Qualification on the data
• VanStelle et al. (2012) published an updated
review of the publications in JOBM
• Reviewed articles published between 1998-2009
• I couldn’t use these updated data because there
aren’t any comparisons with JAP
• I compared the JOBM data from the two articles,
however, and was struck by similarity of data
(DVs, IVS, social validity; some of the differences simply reflect the interests of the academics)
30
SO21: No unifying theory in I/O (NFE)
• I/O Psychology
• No unifying theory historically
• No unifying theory today
• At least 10 motivational theories: Aamodt
• At least 8 leadership theories: Aamodt
• Motivational theories and leadership theories (already 18
different theories)
• Leads to research and articles about who is right
31
SO21: Unifying theory of OBM (NFE)
• OBM (emerged in the early 1960s)
• Unifying theory of behavior analysis
• Emerged from other areas in behavior analysis
- programmed instruction (Brethower)
- clinical psychology (Daniels, Gilbert)
- experimental (Anderson, Brown)
- general applied (Hopkins)
- education (Sulzer-Azaroff)
• Behavior analysis is unique - apply the same
principles across all specializations (not only for
topics within OBM)
32
SO22: Topics in JAP & JOBM
22A: Rank order top 3 in JAP
JAP
JOBM
1. Selection &
1. Productivity & Quality
Placement
2. Statistical Analysis
Procedures
3. Performance
Appraisal
2. Customer
Satisfaction
3. Training and
Development
33
SO22B: Of top 12 topics, commonalities
Only three!!
1. Productivity & Quality
2. Training & Development
3. Health & Safety
34
Differences (NFE)
• Ranking :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
JAP
Selection/Placement
Statistical Analysis
Performance Appraisal
Attitudes, Cognition
Legal Issues
Turnover, Absenteeism,
Attendance
7.
T&D
8.
Productivity & Quality
9.
Gender & Minority
10. Group Performance
11. Leadership/Decision
Making
12. Safety, Health
JOBM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Productivity & Quality
Customer Satisfaction
T&D
Safety, Health
Accuracy
Rate of Performance
Sales
Labor Cost
Timeliness
Novelty
Management/Systems
Analysis
(most OBM articles dealth with productivity & quality issues, 5-10 measures; more breadth I/O)
35
SO23: Primary research strategy
• Percentage of research articles that were
experimental vs correlational (NFE)
JOBM
JAP
Experimental
95%
40%
Correlational
5%
60%
• Primary research strategy
• JOBM: Experimental
• JAP: Correlational
• What is the problem with correlational
research?
(in this and the next few Sos, I have rounded the %s to make it easier for you to learn)
36
SO24: Field vs. Laboratory Exp. (NFE)
Experimental
Setting
JOBM
N = 60
JAP
N = 308
Field
80%
20%
Laboratory
20%
80%
(NFE, but using this to make a point later, % reversed)
37
SO 25: Applied vs. Theoretical Research Studies
Research
Question
JOBM
N = 60
JAP
N = 308
Theoretical
55%
95%
Applied
45%
5%
(more applied studies in the VanStelle 2012 review– 73%)
38
OBM vs. I/O
(NFE)
• The percentage of experimental studies conducted
in the field was much higher in JOBM
JOBM = 80%
JAP = 20%
• The percentage of applied vs. theoretical
experimental studies was much higher in JOBM
JOBM = 45%
JAP = 5%
• Conclusion
OBM is more applied and the gap between
research and practice appears to be larger in I/O
than in OBM
39
SO 28: Independent Variables, how many were
the same?
JAP (N=308)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
JOBM (N=60)
Antecedents/ 71%
Information
Training
15%
Goals
10%
Feedback
8%
Monetary
consequences 5%
Non-monetary
consequences 1%
1.
Praise
7.
.3%
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
8.
9.
Feedback
Training
Monetary
consequences
Antecedents/
Information
Non-monetary
consequences
Goals
Praise
Punishment
System design
75%
63%
33%
32%
28%
25%
18%
5%
2%
(Moving to SO28: top 7 were the same, but proportion very different. JAP antecedents/JOBM consq, pack; Combined
goals, feedback, consq.; not surprising I am covering the topics I am in this class; Not changed much in 2012 review;
package interventions more effective, in sos articles)
40
SO 28: Independent variables in studies
• In I/O
The main IV is antecedent/instructional control
• Consequences are manipulated only rarely
•
• 70% manipulated antecedents; only 15% examined feedback
or consequences
• In OBM
• Antecedents are rarely used alone
• Consequences are manipulated much more
• Feedback, 75% and consequences, 65%
• Package interventions are used much more frequently
• This is an artifact of the types of studies conducted; a
considerable more percentage of OBM studies are applied vs.
lab studies in contrast to I/O studies
41
Dependent Variables
(NFE)
• JAP
• Self-report measures were used in 50% of experimental studies
and 76% of correlational studies;
• Behaviors in only 5% of studies
• JOBM
• Products of behaviors (accomplishments) were used in 78% of
experimental studies
• Behaviors in 43%
42
HISTORY OF OBM IN THE
PRIVATE SECTOR
1950 - 1980
Dickinson, 2000
43
SO31: When did OBM become visible?
OBM started in the mid to late 1960s
44
Table 1: Lifetime Achievement or Outstanding Contributions
Awards (NFE)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Aubrey Daniels
Thomas Gilbert
Edward Feeney
Beth Sulzer-Azaroff
Thomas Mawhinney
Dale Brethower
William Redmon
Alyce Dickinson
Paul Brown
Geary Rummler
Chevron Chemical
Corp (CLG)
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
(red: wmu connection, 10 of 23)
Terry McSween
Jon Bailey
Maria Malott
D. Chris Anderson
William Abernathy
Scott Geller
John Austin
Dwight Harshbarger
Timothy Ludwig
Terry McSween
Judy Agnew
Alyce Dickinson
45
OBM Precursors: 1950s
• SO32: Who is responsible for programmed
instruction?
• Skinner
• The science of learning and the art of teaching, 1954
• Teaching machines, 1958
• Holland & Skinner, Analysis of Behavior, 1961
• SO33: First organized application of behavioral
principles in business & industry
• Programmed instruction (more on this later)
46
SO34: OBM precursors, cont. (NFE)
• Applications in other areas in behavior analysis
began before OBM
• Authors who published the first applied article in
the field of behavior analysis
• Ayllon & Michael: The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral
engineer, JEAB, 1959
• Who is the father of behavior modification and
thus the grandfather of OBM? (according to
Hopkins)
• Jack Michael
47
The 1960s: OBM gets started
• Articles & books - fewer than 10 during the whole
decade (NFE)
• SO35: First professional organization
• National Society for Programmed Instruction: 1962, 12
years before ABAI
• Now, International Society for Performance
Improvement (applied vs academic)
• Dale Brethower, Geary Rummler, Don Tosti, Susan Meyer
Markle, Tom Gilbert
• www.ispi.org (great resource for jobs)
48
University of Michigan workshops (NFE)
• U of M workshops, 1961-1969
• Center of Programmed Instruction
• Brethower, Rummler, Gilbert, (& Malott) hooked up (B&R actually
published first applied OBM article in Personnel in 1966)
• There, programmed instruction led to performance-
based instruction, which led to behavioral systems
analysis
• Brethower, Center for PI
• Rummler, College of Business
• Just for fun, go to the following web page and see an article from
1975 with Dr. Malott leading one of these workshops:
www.aliciapatterson.org/APF001975/McCrea/McCrea06/McCrea06.
html
49
SO36: Brethower’s accomplishments
• Three main accomplishments
• Programmed instruction
• Performance-based instruction
• Behavioral systems analysis
• Other interesting things to know
• Published first behavioral systems book in 1972. The
book was published by a publishing firm called
“Behaviordelia” - run by Dr. Dick Malott.
• Was my advisor here at WMU!
50
SO37: How did PI lead to PBI then BSA?
• Programmed Instruction
• Very skilled at getting people to learn what they
taught, but often the training did not transfer to the job
• Performance-based instruction
• Did training actually transfer to job?
• Led to performance management - it wasn’t the
training that was the problem, but the management
system
• Behavioral Systems Analysis (the BIG picture)
• PBI and PM got transfer to the job, but…
• Was the performance contributing to the mission/goals
of the organization?
51
PM vs BSA conflict (NFE)
• Sales vs manufacturing: classic problem
Implement a sales incentive program so your
sales representatives sell a lot of cars, but
manufacturing can’t keep up. That creates a long
delay for the consumer who then buys a car from
someone else. Your PM program for sales has
worked, but to the detriment of the entire
organization.
52
SO38: Brethower, Rummler, & Gilbert
• Brethower and Rummler developed behavior
systems analysis together when they were
graduate students at UM in the 60s
• Gilbert was invited to teach some of the
workshops at UM
• Rummler and Gilbert started a consulting firm
together (Praxis in NYC) that was one of the first
behavioral consulting firms in the country
• 1967-G, 1969-R, dissolved 1979 and sold to Kepner-
Tregoe
(Work of these individuals is very similar – not a coincidence)
53
SO39: Gilbert’s book and date
• Human Competence, 1978
• Introduced the concept of “worthy performance” and
focusing on accomplishments vs. behavior - very
controversial in the field.
• Behavior Engineering Model was one of the first
comprehensive performance diagnostic tools for the
field.
• Austin’s PDC and Binder’s six boxes based on this model: We
will look at both in the next unit
• PIP: potential for improving performance
• Exemplar performance minus average performance = PIP.
• Many consultants use some variant of this today.
(define accomplishments;1995 unfinished autobiography, Human Incompetence )
54
Tom Gilbert
Og Lindsley
Rich O’Brien
Tom Gilbert
55
SO40: Aubrey Daniels
• Formed Behavior Systems, Inc., 1971
• With Larry Miller & Fran Tarkenton
• First editor of JOBM, 1977
• Practitioner journal, BSI
• Published one of the first books in OBM
(written for supervisors)
• Performance Management, now in its 5th edition
• New edition: Daniels & Bailey
Aubrey has retired from ADI, Darnell Lattal is Chair, Board of Directors, Thomas Spencer,
A WVU grad, Iwas appointed president and CEO, Jan. 14. ; Aubrey Daniels Institute: Aubrey,
President and Andy Lattal, Executive Director & Museum Curator (online museum)
(Minnesota Vikings, “got divorced,” ADI founded in 1978)
56
Aubrey Daniels
57
SO41: Where did the name of our field
come from?
• JOBM, 1977
• Aubrey Daniels
• Problem with name
• Not distinctive within business - OB vs. OBM
• Business people don’t understand it
• Their kids behave (misbehave); their workers perform
• Performance Management - still a problem
58
SO42A: First graduate program to offer
OBM and systems analysis?
• Western Michigan University!!!
• Early 1970s, Applied Behavior Analysis program
59
SO42B: First faculty member at WMU?
• Dr. Richard Malott was responsible for the
systems analysis training here at WMU
• Dr. Malott graduated the first students trained
specifically in systems
• 1978, Brethower joined faculty to behavioralize MA
program in I/O, due to Dr. Malott
• 1984 Dickinson joined WMU faculty
• My generation, first students trained in OBM
60
SO 43
• How do early events in traditional I/O, business and
management fields relate to the development of OBM?
• They were chronological precursors but not causal precursors,
unlike many have maintained when writing about the history of
OBM
• Field of OBM emanated from the field of behavior analysis
61
SO 43, cont.
• Why does Dickinson maintain OBM came from behavior
analysis and was not much influenced by I/O, business,
or management fields?
• The individuals who most influenced and pioneered the field
came from other areas within behavior analysis, not from these
traditional fields
• Aubrey Daniels - clinical
• Dale Brethower - school psychology
• Beth Sulzer-Azaroff - education
• Bill Hopkins - general behavior analysis
• Tom Gilbert - clinical
• Paul Brown – experimental
• Chris Anderson – experimental
• Chuck Crowell - experimental
62
THAT’S ALL FOLKS!
• Questions?
• E1: Wed., 9/10