Subjective Wellbeing through an ability expectations lens
Jacqueline Noga and Gregor Wolbring
For
INTERNATIONAL PEACE RESEARCH ASSOCIATION(IPRA) Conference, Japan Nov 29th ,
2012
Introduction:
Subjective well-being has been looked at for quite some time[1]. It covered students [2-4],
adolescents [5-7], age [8-13], countries[14-38] economics [39-42], personal goals [43],
consumption[44-49] [18], income [3;50-53], hedonism[18] to just name a few areas. Subjective
wellbeing includes such aspects as” being respected, having meaningful choices, and being able
to preserve one’s dignity”[54]. Various indictors exist [14;15;17;55-62]. According to Diener et
al “subjective well-being (SWB), people's emotional and cognitive evaluations of their lives,
includes what lay people call happiness, peace, fulfillment, and life satisfaction”[63].
Subjective well-being and peace
Diener and Trov employed a hierarchical generalized linear modeling “to examine the relations
between person-level subjective well-being (SWB) and peace-relevant attitudes, and how these
relations vary across nations in the World Values Survey”[64]. They submitted that the
subjective well-being (SWB) of the citizenry should be added to the bases of a culture of peace
[64]. Inner or relational and societal peace are often seen as being part of feeling well [65]. A
link between subjective well-being researchers and peace studies programs is seen as beneficial
[66]. Various personal transformations are needed for a culture of peace to succeed [67]. Dolan
highlighted that the following subjective well-being should be measured for public policy, Life
satisfaction, Happy yesterday, Purpose, Worthwhile, Personal relationships, physical health,
mental well-being, work situation, financial situation, area where you live, the amount of time
you have to do things you like doing, well-being of child/children [68]. According to Diener and
Trov “individual level, SWB may foster peace attitudes by influencing the way people perceive
and relate to others” and “prolonged periods of anger and anxiety in a society can lead to
instability” [64]. Diener and Trov[64] highlight that de Rivera[69] developed four social
indicators as being essential for a culture of peace namely “and arrived at four peace factors:
liberal development (an indicator of economic strength and democratic institutions), violent
inequality (which reflects homicide rates and unequal income distribution), violent means (the
extent of military spending and use), and nurturance (which includes tolerance and education
spending)”. Diener and Trov measured the following, Person-Level Criterion Variables, a)
Confidence in Parliament, Civil Service, and the Armed Forces; b) Endorsement of Army Rule,
Autocracy, and Democracy; c) Postmaterialist Values; d) Racial Intolerance; e) Restrictions on
Immigration; f) Willingness to Fight for Country. As Person-Level Predictor: Person-Level SWB
they had As Nation-Level Predictors. they used the four peace factors (liberal development,
violent inequality, violent means, and nurturance; de Rivera, 2004) [64]. Diener and Trov
concluded “the social, political, and economic structures of a society are related to peace, as
reflected in the attitudes of the people living in that society. In nations where GDP and liberal
development are high, there are greater levels of opposition to military rule and less willingness
to fight a war for one’s country. In addition, liberal development and GDP were associated with
a greater emphasis on postmaterialist concerns and lower levels of racially intolerant attitudes in
society.” However they also found that “increasing national wealth or civil and political
liberties—though important—does not ensure that people will be confident in their government.”
As to Personlevel SWB peace was associated with greater confidence in parliament and civil
services, with endorsement of democracy, greater emphasis on postmaterialist values, and less
intolerance of immigrants and members of different racial and ethnic groups and these effects
were not moderated by GDP or liberal development[64]. Sagiv and Schwartz [70] investigated
the linkage between value priorities and subjective well-being. They used the following 10 value
types; power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, (Understanding,
appreciation, tolerance and protection for the welfare of all people and for nature), benevolence,
tradition, conformity and security. Each of these value types had various values attached to it
which were seen as valid across cultures. Interestingly the following were excluded as they were
seen as not to be valued across cultures (social recognition, intelligent, self-respect, inner
harmony, true friendship, a spiritual life, mature love, meaning in life, privacy, punctuality, sense
of belonging, healthy). They found “that many types of values are directly, albeit weakly,
relevant to the affective aspect of subjective well-being but not to cognitive aspects” and “that
different types of values (perhaps all) may be relevant to subjective well-being, depending on the
value environment” [70].
Ginty[71] believes that “many of the approaches to measuring peace favoured by international
organisations, INGOs and donor governments are deficient” and “are meaningless
to local communities”. Ginty proposes “a new generation of locally organised indicators that are
based in everyday life” and whose generation involves the community to generate meures
relevant for them.
Consumerism, well-being and Peace
According to Boulding “a vast literature on the issue of whether humans are by nature cooperative and peaceful or bv nature competitive and violent”[72] De Rivera et all highlight that
various articles suggest “that a fully developed culture of peace requires a blending of both
competitive and cooperative capability”[66]. Consumers are an important aspect in determining
the outcome of competitive behaviours. [73] According to Milani a culture can be destroyed by
“materialist values as well as its focus on consumerism and immediate pleasure”[74]. Various
authors looked at a culture of peace in a consumer society[75-77] Question is can/should policy
influence search behaviour? [73] Sitta von Reden [78] in her piece on consumption in ancient
Greece talks about elite and peasant consumption, about private households, state and temple
consumerism. She highlights how what was seen as acceptable consumerism changed over time.
According to [78] “in Athens forms and levels of consumption were influenced by the
relationship between the urban center and its hinterland, by pressures for all citizens to
participate in politics and ritual, and on the wealthy elite to make financial contributions to the
community, reduced cultural and economic divisions between city and country; by; public
wages and monetary liturgies stimulated monetization by the polis as a collective was a
consumer itself and by democracy creating an egalitarian ideology that homogenized public
displays and opened a formerly exclusive culture to a wider social range of people”. [78]
“World consumption has expanded at an unprecedented pace over the 20th century, with private
and public consumption expenditures reaching $24 trillion in 1998, twice the level of 1975 and
six times that of 1950. In 1900 real consumption expenditure was barely $1.5 trillion” [79].
Global inequality in consumption continuous to exists.
Developing economies’ share of world merchandise exports increased 11 percentage points from
1995 to 2007. [80] However high income countries still represent 71% of the world merchandise
market. [80] The richest 20 percent of the world’s population spent more than 75 percent of the
world total, while the poorest 20 percent spent less than 2 percent. [81] China continues to
dominate merchandise exports among developing economies. Even when developed economies
are included, China ranks as the third leading merchandise exporter. [80] Inequality between
countries is greatest within Sub Saharan Countries[82]. Inequalities between individuals are high
in Latin America and the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan Africa, where the income share of the
richest 20 percent of the population is at least 18 times that of the poorest 20 percent, and lower
in South Asia and Europe and Central Asia, where the ratio falls below 7. [79]. The average
African household today consumes 20% less than it did 25 years ago. The poorest 20% of the
world's people and more have been left out of the consumption explosion. Well over a billion
people are deprived of basic consumption needs. [79] More specifically, the richest fifth:
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Consume 45% of all meat and fish, the poorest fifth 5%
Consume 58% of total energy, the poorest fifth less than 4%
have 74% of all telephone lines, the poorest fifth 1.5%
Consume 84% of all paper, the poorest fifth 1.1%
Own 87% of the world’s vehicle fleet, the poorest fifth less than 1% [79]
Some world's consumption priorities (annual expenditure) are Basic education for all $6 billion;
cosmetics in the USA $8 billion; Water and sanitation for all $9 billion"; Ice cream in Europe
$11 billion; Reproductive health for all women $12 billion"; Perfumes in Europe and the USA
$12 billion; Basic health and nutrition $13 billion"; Pet foods in Europe and the USA $17 billion;
Business entertainment in Japan $35 billion; Cigarettes in Europe $50 billion; Alcoholic drinks
in Europe $105 billion; Narcotic drugs in the world $400 billion; Military spending in the world
$780 billion [79]
[83] asks the following questions
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How are the products and resources we consume actually produced?
What are the impacts of that process of production on the environment, society, on
individuals?
What are the impacts of certain forms of consumption on the environment, on society, on
individuals?
Which actors influence our choices of consumption?
Which actors influence how and why things are produced or not?
What is a necessity and what is a luxury?
How do demands on items affect the requirements placed upon the environment?
How do consumption habits change as societies change?
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Businesses and advertising are major engines in promoting the consumption of products so
that they may survive. How much of what we consume is influenced by their needs versus
our needs?
Also influential is the very culture of today in many countries, as well as the media and the
political institutions themselves. What is the impact on poorer nations and people on the
demands of the wealthier nations and people that are able to afford to consume more?
How do material values influence our relationships with other people?
What impact does that have on our personal values?
Consumerism and national identity
Consumerism is also linked to national identity [84] Staab investigated the consumer behaviour
between East and West Germany. The fall of the Berlin wall and the unification of East and
West Germany forced many East Germans to revisit their sense of belonging, their identity, to
revisit which social community they would from now on see as the one they identify with. The
national identity of East and West Germany were build on quite different foundations and code
of contacts and ways of identification with the country. Staab highlight in his piece “the
consumer hysteria that started in November 1989 represented an astonishing expression of a
long-repressed desire for a new meaning in life - a desire for consumer choice and prosperity”
[84]. As he rightly concludes: “in the eyes of most East Germans, consumer products manifested
the superiority of the West and functioned as focal points for own individual needs and desires”.
Indeed this desire to be able to consume as much as people in the West is one point of discontent
between the East and West. News reports are surface over and over that state that former East
Germans feel neglected and not enough supported by West Germans and as such their GDP is
not as high as in the West and they cannot afford the same things than people in the West. On the
other hand many Westerners feel that they have already given enough to the East (up to now its
around 1.5 Trillion Dollar) and see their own ability to consume in danger (proxy being
unemployment, lack of services and job opportunities..). When the Berlin wall came down two
main paths of dealings between the East and West were possible. One was that East Germany
would become a democratic Western style country in their own right and the other was that it
would unify with West Germany. At that time East Germans were demanding the unification as
this was seen as the more secure way to obtain the prosperity levels. As Staab writes: “In the end,
the prospect of participating in the Western consumer society was a vital - if not the ultimate identity marker for East Germans which sparked the unequivocal ambition for immediate
unification with the Federal Republic that sent the GDR to the confines of history”. [84]. By the
end of 1993, 82 per cent of surveyed consumers stated that they preferred Eastern over Western
products."[85]. The orientation towards East German consumer goods became an indicator for
emerging regional pride. Once spotted, differences in consumer behaviour and preferences
between East and West Germany were cultivated and turned into reasons for self-esteem. [84] In
quantitative perspective East Germans firmly internalised consumerism by approximating to the
consumption levels of their Western compatriots. Easterners also filled consumerism with
political meaning. By buying certain products they expressed emerging regional pride By buying
certain products they expressed emerging regional pride, defiance against the sweeping
transformation processes and a nostalgic and romanticised reference to the GDR past. These
mass-cultural expressions of national identity serve as telling indicators for the continued
separation of the publics' psyche in east and west. [84] Status is one basis of power, and products
can signal status, the authors argue that low power fosters a desire to acquire products associated
with status to compensate for lacking power.[86].
Consumerism, science and technology advancements and peace
A link exist between consumerism, science and technology advancement, international trade and
competitiveness [87]. As ETC Group states in their report “The Potential Impacts of Nano-scale
technologies on commodity markets: the implications for commodity dependent developing
countries’ written for the South Centre, “For the majority of developing countries, commodity
production is the backbone of the economy. Commodity dependence and poverty are closely
intertwined. Commodities provide the primary source of income for the South’s rural poor.
Ninety-five out of 141 developing countries depend on commodities for at least 50 per cent of
their export earnings; 46 developing countries depend on three or fewer commodities for more
than half of their total export earnings”[88]. “Governments, industry and scientists in OECD
countries are quick to point out the potential contributions of nano-scale technology to
development in the South. To date however, the potential disruptive impacts of nanotech on
developing economies and human development have received far less attention. South Africa’s
Minister of Science and Technology, Mosibudi Mangena, warned inFebruary 2005”[88]. “With
the increased investment in nanotechnology research and innovation, most traditional
materials…will…be replaced by cheaper, functionally rich and stronger [materials]. It is
important to assure that our natural resources do not become redundant, especially because our
economy is still very much dependent on them” [88].“Nanotech’s new designer materials could
topple commodity markets, disrupt trade and eliminate jobs. Worker-displacement brought on by
commodity obsolescence will hurt the poorest and most vulnerable, particularly those workers in
the developing world who don’t have the economic flexibility to respond to sudden demands for
new skills or different raw materials. It is also important to note that nano-scale technologies
could offer potential for developing countries to innovate and add value to current commodities.
In addition, proponents of nanotechnology point to future environmental benefits of
revolutionary manufacturing processes associated with “bottom-up” construction that will
minimize waste and offer the potential to recycle raw materials”[88]. “The potential impacts of
nanotech for the South cannot be categorized as monolithically “good” or “bad.” However, it is
clear that commodity dependent developing nations are the poorest, most vulnerable and will
likely face the greatest socio-economic disruptions”[88]. This we submit impacts peace.
Conclusion
There is a complicated relationship between ability expectations, values and goals of people and
nations, subjective well-being and peace which needs much more research. In another paper
presented at this conference we highlighted in more detail challenges linked to eco-ableism and
challenges linked to science and technology enabled ability expectation changes.
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