Political Geography
Chapter 8
Introduction
 Political geography helps explain the cultural
and physical factors that underlie political
unrest
 Political geographers study how people have
organized Earth’s land surface into countries
and alliances, the reasons for doing so, and
the conflicts that can erupt from the
organization
Where are States Located?
 Almost all land on the Earth belongs to a
country
 Not true as recently as 1940s – only about 50
countries then

Now there are 192 members of the UN
 State- an area organized into a political unit
and ruled by an established gov. that has
control over its internal and foreign affairs

Occupies a defined territory and has a
permanent population
continued
 Sovereignty- independence from control of
its internal affairs by other states
 States are examples of formal regions
because the entire territory is ruled by a
common gov., laws, military etc.
 Country and state are synonyms
Problems of Defining States
 Antarctica is the only large landmass on Earth
that is not part of a state

Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New
Zealand, Norway, and the UK all claim
portions of Antarctica


The US and Russia do not recognize these
claims
The Treaty of Antarctica 1959 (1991) says states
may establish research stations but may not have
a military presence
continued
 There is some disagreement about the
number of sovereign states around the world
 Korea, China, and Western Sahara (Sahrawi
Republic) are examples of places that test the
definition of state
Korea: One State or Two?
 After Japan was
defeated in WWII,
Korea was divided into
two occupation zones
by the US and Russia
 Division was made at
38 degrees N. Latitude
 N. Korea invaded South
Korea in 1950
 After 3 years, a ceasefire was agreed upon
near the 38th parallel
continued
 Both gov. are committed to reunification
 In 2000 they agreed to exchange visits of
families separated for more than 50 years
and for increased economic cooperation

Progress slowed by N. Korea’s decision to
build nuclear weapons even though the
country can’t provide its citizens with food,
electricity, etc.
 Both countries were admitted into the UN in
1992
China and Taiwan: One State or Two?
 In 1949 the ruling gov. of China lost a civil war
and fled to the island of Taiwan

They claimed to still be the rightful gov. of
China and that they were waiting for the defeat
of the communists so they could return to the
mainland
 Communist China claimed Taiwan and vice
versa

They agreed there was only 1 states, but not
about who ruled it
continued
 In 1999, Taiwan decided to claim itself a
separate sovereign state
 In the 1950s and 1960s the US did not
recognize communist China as a country
 Not until 1971 did the US recognize
communist China—they were awarded the
UN seat formerly held by the Taiwanese gov.
 Taiwan is now the most populous country not
in the UN
Western Sahara (Sahrawi Republic)
 Most African countries recognize as a
sovereign state
 Morocco does not

They claim the territory and built a 3,000
kilometer wall around it to keep out rebels
 The territory was controlled by Spain until
1976 when they withdrew
 An independent state was declared, but
Morocco and Mauritania annexed the
Northern and Southern portions
continued
 After 3 years, Mauritania withdrew and Morocco
claimed the entire territory


Today Morocco controls most of the territory
However, there is a gov. group that operates in the
sparsely populated deserts (esp. the 1/5 of territory
outside the wall)
 A cease-fire was signed in 1991 and a UN
peacekeeping force upholds it
 While all of this is going on, Spain controls 2 cities in
Morocco—the were annexed into Spain 500 years
ago and the combined 140,000 residents favor
remaining part of Spain
Varying Size of States
 Largest – Russia= 6.6 million sq. miles

11% of total land area
 China, Canada, United States, Brazil, and
Australia are the only other states of more
than 2.9 million sq. miles
 Microstates- states with very small land
areas
 Smallest is Monaco=0.6 square miles

Many microstates are small islands
Development of the State Concept
 Relatively recent concept
 Before the 1800s Earth was organized in
other ways

City-states, empires, and tribes
Ancient States
 The first states to develop in
the Fertile Crescent
(Mesopotamia) were citystates

A sovereign state that
compromises a town
and the surrounding
countryside
 City was walled for
protection and surrounding
countryside was used for
agriculture
continued
 Sometimes one city-state would assert
dominance in the area and create an empire

Ex. Sumerians, Assyrians, and Babylonians
 About the same time the Egyptians were
forming an Empire along the Nile River Valley
Early European States
 Roman Empire controlled most of Europe,
North Africa, and SW Asia
 Spanned from England in the North to Egypt
in the South and from Spain in the West to
Iran in the East
 After the fall of the Empire, Europe was
broken up into large estates owned by Kings,
Dukes, etc.
 They fought each other and some
consolidated lands into Kingdoms
continued
 Around 1100, powerful Kings began to
emerge as they consolidated large estates


England, France, and Spain
Germany and Italy however were not
consolidated until the 1800s
Colonies
 Def.- a territory that is legally tied to a
sovereign state rather than being completely
independent
 Usually sparsely populated before the colony
is established
 Colonialism- the effort by one country to
establish settlements and impose its political,
economic, and cultural principles on a
territory
continued
 European states
1.
2.
3.

created colonies for
three reasons
To promote Christianity
To gain valuable
resources
To show their relative
power
GOD, GOLD, and
GLORY
continued
 Europeans first started colonizing in the late
1400s—Americas
 Most of those colonies declared
independence by 1824 and Europe turned to
Africa and Asia
 Imperialism- control of territory already
occupied and organized by an indigenous
society
continued
 UK created largest colonial empire
 “sun never set” on British empire
 France also had a large empire- colonies
concentrated in West Africa and SE Asia
continued
 France attempted to
 The British created
assimilate its colonies
into French culture and
educate an elite group
to provide local
leadership
 After independence
most French colonies
remained close to
France
different gov. policies in
each of its colonies
 Allowed local
inhabitants to maintain
their diverse cultures
and local customs
 British colonies made
peaceful transitions to
independence in most
cases
concluded
 Most African and Asian colonies became
independent after WWII
 Only a handful of colonies still exist


Most are islands in the Pacific or Caribbean
Most populous is Puerto Rico
Why Do Boundaries Cause Problems?
 Boundary- an invisible line marking the
extent of a state’s territory
 Can be natural physical features or cultural
features such as religion and language
 Boundary locations often generate conflict
because the lines are the only place two
neighboring countries must have physical
contact
Shapes of States
 Shape of a state controls the length of its
boundaries with other states
 Shape also can influence the ease or difficulty
of internal administration and can affect social
unity
 There are 5 basic shapes:





Compact
Prorupted
Elongated
Fragmented
Perforated
Compact States: Efficient
 Def.- state where the
distance from the center
to any boundary does
not vary significantly
 Ideal compact state
would be a circle with
the capital in the center
 Allows for good
communications from
all regions
 Ex’s Burundi, Kenya,
Uganda
Prorupted States: Access or Disruption
 Def. – an otherwise compact state with a
large projecting extension
 Proruptions are created for 2 reasons
1. To provide a state with access to a resource
such as water (Congo stretches to Atlantic
Ocean) (why Cabinda is separated from the
rest of Angola)
2. To separate two states that would otherwise
share a border (Afghanistan separates
Russia from Pakistan)
Elongated States: Potential Isolation
 Def.- states with a long narrow shape
 Only a handful of these
 Ex. Chile – over 2500 miles long, but only 90
miles wide
 Italy is a less extreme example 700 by 120
miles
 Gambia is an elongated state on an EastWest orientation (300 miles wide by15 miles
long) by that is completely surrounded by
Senegal
continued
 May suffer from poor
internal communication
and some regions may
be isolated from the
capital which is usually
near the center
Fragmented States: Problematic
 Def.- state with several discontinuous pieces


1.
2.
of territory
Technically, any state that has offshore
islands is considered fragmented –
fragmentation is particularly significant for
some states
2 types:
Areas separated by water
Areas separated by an intervening state
continued
 Indonesia is most extreme fragmented state
 13,677 islands spread over 3,000 miles in the
Indian Ocean
 80% of pop. lives on the two islands of Java
and Sumatra
 Fragmentation hinders communication and
makes integration of people living on remote
islands nearly impossible
 Indonesian gov. encourages migration from
major pop. centers to more remote areas to
encourage national integration
continued
 The US, Russia, Angola, and Bangladesh are
examples of countries with territory separated
by other states
 Kaliningrad is separated from the rest of
Russia by 250 miles

Important to Russia because it gives them
access to the Baltic sea
 The Tin Bigha corridor of India divides
Bangladesh
continued
 Panama was a fragmented state while the US
controlled the canal and the surrounding
canal zone

Now that the US has returned control of the
canal, Panama is now a elongated state
Perforated States: South Africa
 Def.- a state that completely surrounds
another one
 South Africa is a great example

It completely surrounds Lesotho

Lesotho dependent upon S. Africa for import and
export of goods
Can You Identify Each Type of State?
Landlocked States
 Landlocked states- a state that lacks a
direct outlet to the sea because it is
completely surrounded by several other
countries

14 out of the 54 countries in Africa are
landlocked

Remnant of European colonialism
continued
 Access to a seaport is critical because it
facilitates international trade


Bulky goods are usually transported by ship
Landlocked states are at the mercy of other
states for the use of their seaports
Types of Boundaries
•Historically, frontiers separated states
•-a zone where no state exercises
complete political control
•Frontiers are tangible geographic
areas
•Boundaries are thin, invisible, and
imagined lines
•Boundaries have replaced frontiers almost
everywhere on Earth
continued
 Antarctica and the
Arabian Peninsula are
the only places that still
have frontiers
 Saudi Arabia is
separated from Qatar,
UAE, Oman, and
Yemen by frontiers
continued
 Boundaries can be physical or cultural
 Physical boundaries can be seen on a map
and on the ground
 Neither type necessarily better than others
 Best boundaries are those that all affected
states agree upon
Mountain Boundaries
 Serve as effective boundaries when they are
difficult to cross
 Also pretty permanent
 Argentina and Chile are separated by the
crest of the Andes Mountains

They have had disagreements about where
exactly that crest lies
Desert Boundaries
 Deserts are hard to cross and sparsely
inhabited
 Type of boundary common in Africa and Asia
 Sahara desert separates Libya, Algeria, and
Egypt from their southern neighbors
Mauritania, Mali, Niger, Chad and the Sudan
Water Boundaries
 Rivers, lakes, and oceans are often used to
mark boundaries
 Very common in East Africa

Ex. Boundary separating Kenya, Tanzania,
and Uganda runs through Lake Victoria
 Boundaries are typically in the middle of the
water, but not always
 Water makes attack from neighbors more
difficult because of troop transport
continued
 Water boundaries can cause some difficulties
 Position of water changes over time
 Ex. Rio Grande along the US – Mexico border
 Ocean boundaries can also be problematic
 Most states claim the boundary is not at the coastline,
but out at sea
 Done for defense and resources
 The Law of the Sea (1983), signed by 117 countries,
recognizes borders at 12 nautical miles – with
exclusive fishing rights to 200 nautical miles
Cultural Boundaries
 A nation-state exists when the boundaries of
a state match the boundaries of the territory
inhabited by an ethnic group
Geometric Boundaries
 Part of US border with Canada is an arc that
follows the 49th parallel for 1300 miles from
Minnesota to Washington
Religious Boundaries
 In a few cases religion has been used to
select a boundary between states
 The British split India into states based on
religion

Hindus in India, Muslims in Pakistan
 Northern Ireland is majority Protestant and is
part of the UK
 Ireland is 95% Catholic and is independent
from the UK
Language Boundaries
 After WWI, language was the most important
factor the Allies used in creating new states
and changing the boundaries of existing
states– esp. in Eastern and Southern Europe


Ex. Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland
Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia were created by
grouping people of similar languages together
into one country– both separated into many
countries in the 1990s
Cyprus’s “Green Line” Boundary
 Read about this p. 271-272
Boundaries Inside States
 Local gov. boundaries are sometimes drawn to
separate different nationalities or ethnicities
 In the US, they are sometimes drawn to provide an
advantage to a political party
 Unitary state- an internal organization of a state that
places most power in the hands of the central
government officials
 Federal state- an internal organization of a state that
allocates most powers to units of local government
Unitary States
 Works best in nation-states characterized by
few internal cultural differences and a strong
sense of national unity
 Smaller states are more likely to adopt
 Common in Europe
 Some multinational states have adopted
unitary systems so the values of one
nationality can be imposed on the others

Ex. Rwanda
Federal States
 Local governments have the authority to
adopt their own laws
 Multinational states may adopt federal
systems to empower different nationalities,
esp. if they live in different regions of the
country
 Well suited for large states-most large
countries are

US, Russia, Canada, Brazil, and India
Electoral Geography
 Legislative districts in the US are redrawn
every 10 years to reflect relative population
changes
 In most European countries independent
commissions are created to draw the districts
 In the US, state legislatures are responsible
for drawing congressional districts
 Party in power attempts to draw lines to keep
them in power
Gerrymandering
 Def.- the process of redrawing legislative
boundaries for the purpose of benefiting the
party in power
 Named for Elbridge Gerry, Gov. of Mass.
1810-1812

One of the districts he drew looked like a
salamander– critic called it a gerrymander
Types of Gerrymandering
 Basically three types:
1. Wasted Vote- spreads opposition supporters
across many districts in minority numbers
2. Excess Vote- concentrates opposition
supporters into a few districts
3. Stacked Vote- links distant areas of likeminded voters through oddly shaped
boundaries
continued
 Most gerrymandering in
the Us is now “stacked
vote” gerrymandering


Leads to the party in
power owning a
majority of support in a
majority of the districts
Often used to create
districts made up
largely of ethnic
minorities
th district in
 Ex. 12
NC
continued
 Supreme Court ruled Gerrymandering illegal
in 1985, but doesn’t have the power to keep it
from happening
 Estimated that only 10% of congressional
seats are actually competitive because of
gerrymandering
Political and Military Cooperation
 The United Nations was created to prevent
the likelihood of a third World War
 It was created at the end of WWII by the
Allies
 In 1945 there were 45 members, by 2007
there were 192
 The UN replaced the failed League of Nations
that was created after WWI
The United Nations
 The UN has had three major expansionary
periods



1955- 16 countries were added –mostly
European countries that had been liberated
from Nazi Germany
1960- 17 new members added –mostly former
British and French colonies in Africa
1990-1993- 26 countries were added—mostly
from the breakup of the Soviet Union and
Yugoslavia
continued
 UN members can vote to send a
peacekeeping force into unstable areas


Member countries send troops to make up the
force
China, Russia, France, the UK, and the US
(permanent members of the UN Security
Council) have the power to veto a
peacekeeping force

Happened often during the Cold War
continued
 The UN is currently trying to separate warring
groups in Eastern Europe, the Middle East,
and sub-Saharan Africa


Ties to maintain neutrality b/w the two sides
Not always possible, esp. in cases involving
genocide

Ex. Bosnian Serbs were seen as the aggressor
versus Bosnian Muslims
Regional Military Alliances
 In addition to the UN, many states also joined
regional military alliances after WWII
Era of Two Superpowers
 During the Cold War, the US and Soviet
Union were the World’s two superpowers
 Before this time, there were usually multiple
powerful states, none of which could
dominate on their own
 Major states joined together for temporary
alliances
 Balance of power- condition of roughly equal
strength between opposing countries or
alliances of countries
continued
 After WWII, the US and Soviet Union were
the only powers left that were not battered to
the point of losing there power status
 During the Cold War, the world was split into
allies of the US and allies of the Soviet Union
 Both superpowers created military bases in
ally countries around the world

Therefore, they could maintain strength in
regions not near their own territory
Military Cooperation in Europe
 2 military alliances were formed in Europe
after WWII –NATO and the Warsaw Pact
 The North Atlantic Treaty Organization was a
military pact between the US, Canada, and
14 democratic European States
 The Warsaw Pact was a military agreement
among 7 Communist countries in Eastern
Europe
continued
 NATO and the Warsaw Pact were created to
maintain a bipolar balance of power in
Europe
 NATO wanted to prohibit the Soviets from
taking over W. Germany and many smaller
nations in Europe
 The Warsaw Pact created a buffer zone
between the Soviet Union and W. Germany
continued
 After the Cold War, the Warsaw Pact
disbanded and most of its former members
joined NATO

Which offers its members a sense of security
against Russian threats in the future
Other Regional Organizations
 The Organization of American States (OAS)
includes all 35 states in the W. Hemisphere


Cuba has been suspended since 1962
Promotes social, cultural, political, and
economic links b/w member states
 The African Union (AU) was created in 2001
and has 53 members

Tries to promote economic integration in Africa
Economic Cooperation

The need for a bipolar balance of power ended
when the Soviet Union disbanded in 1992
 We are now back to having more than 2 major
powers—like before WWII, but with 2 diff.
1. Economic power becoming more important than
military power—allows Japan and Germany to be
considered powers
2. The leading power is not a single state, but an
economic union in Europe led by Germany
European Union
 Predecessor was established in 1958 with 6
members


Originally designed to help Europe’s WWII scars heal
Expanded to 12 countries in the 1980’s and now has
27 members with 2 more wanting to join (Croatia and
Turkey)
 Wants to promote development through economic
cooperation


Removes barriers to free trade– goods and services
and people can travel throughout the Union without
stopping
Created a common currency (the Euro)
 Has become the World’s wealthiest market
Terrorism
 Def- the systematic use of violence by a
group to intimidate a population or coerce a
gov. into granting its demands
 Terrorism attacks usually target ordinary
people rather than military or political leaders
Al-Qaeda
 Terror network founded by Osama bin Laden
 Believed to be living in Afghanistan since
1994
 Issued a declaration of war against the US
because of its support for Saudi Arabia and
Israel
 Al-Qaeda means “the foundation”

Created around 1990 to unite jihad fighters
around the world—est. 20,000 members in 34
countries
continued
 Network consists of a large number of
autonomous cells who have little contact with
other cells and other members of their own
 Not all Muslims agree with the terror tactics of
Al-Qaeda
 Americans and Europeans have the
challenge of distinguishing b/w peaceful
Muslims and the handful of terrorists out of
the 1.3 billion Muslims in the World
State Support of Terrorism
 Several Middle Eastern states have
1.
2.
3.

provided support for terrorists—3 types
Providing sanctuary
Supplying weapons, money, and intelligence
Planning attacks using terrorists
Libya, Afghanistan, Iraq, and Iran have all
been accused by the US of supporting
terrorism
Libya
 1986- bombing of a night club popular with
US service men in Berlin
 Bombing of Pan Am flight 103 over Lockerbie,
Scotland in 1988
 Bombing of UTA flight 772 over Niger in 1989
 After 8 years of UN trade sanctions, Colonel
Muammar el-Qaddafi turned over flight 103
suspects and agreed to compensate
survivors of the victims
Afghanistan
 Sheltered Osama bin Laden and other
terrorists after the attack on the World Trade
Center in NY
 Gov. known as the Taliban


Strict Islamic Fundamentalist
Ruled for six years until the US expelled them
in 2001
Iraq
 US claimed Iraq was supporting terrorism and
creating weapons of mass destruction
 Invaded in 2003 and deposed longtime ruler
Saddam Hussein
Iran
 Hostility with the US began in 1979 when a
revolution removed pro-US leader from office
and placed the Ayatollah Khomeini as ruler
 In Nov. of 1979, 62 Americans at the US
embassy were kidnapped and held hostage
until Jan. of 1981
 US has accused Iran of harboring terrorists
and of trying to develop nuclear weapons