Outline
• Brief overview of the development of the
Behavioural Approach
• Three applications of the Behavioural
Approach
– Agricultural land-use decisions (land-use
theory)
– Differences in spatial skills (spatial cognition)
Outline for Lecture No. 2
• Continue overview of the development of the
Behavioural Approach
• Simon’s Satisficer Theory
• Golledge and Simspon’s Cognitive Map Model
• The Behavioural Approach and Land-use Theory
Foundations for the Emergence
of the “New” Geography
• Regional perspective was not regarded as a
science
• Edward Ackerman (1945) argued that:
– During WWII many regional specialists “lacked the
competence in topical and systematic subjects”
Geography and the
Regional Perspective
• Following demise of ED, the regional
perspective dominated
• Regional perspective emphasized detailed study
of specific regions, synthesizing knowledge from
many systematic disciplines
• Emphasized Areal Differentiation
According to Richard Hartshorne (1939), the
goal of geography was to …….
“provide an orderly and rational description
and interpretation of the variable character
of the earth’s surface”
NB: definition does not include any
reference to explanation, prediction,
search for laws, or empirical
verification.
Foundations for the Emergence
of the “New” Geography
• Regional perspective was not regarded as a
science
• Edward Ackerman (1945) argued that:
– During WWII many regional specialists “lacked the
competence in topical and systematic subjects”
Foundations for the Emergence
of the “New” Geography (cont’d)
• 1953 Frederick Schaefer publishes “Exceptionalsim in
Geography”
• Geography should shift focus from the general to the
specific (systematic focus)
• Geography should adopt of the basic objective of
science
• And that geography should adopt the methods,
techniques and “language” of science
Adoption of Logical Positivism and
Neo-classical Economic Determinism
• Iowa State geography dept at the forefront
• Scheafer had been influenced by Gustav
Bergmann who had been a member of the
“Vienna Circle”
• Several other members at Iowa adopted notion
of “Homo Economus”
Neo-classical Economic Determinism
Challenged…..
• Neo-classical economic determinism dominated
human (economic) geography until late 1960s
• Predictions grounded in optimization, principle of
least effort or profit maximization were found
wanting – too many anomalies
• E.g. how do we explain decisions that are “good
enough” (feasible) but not “the best” (optimal)?
Simon’s Satisficer Theroy
• We are rational decision makers – even when
decisions are sub-optimal
• Simon’s Central Idea = When making decisions,
we taken a range of considerations into account
B
A
Environmental Information
Personality
Experiences
Perceptual Filters
Culture
Gender
Class
Ethnicity
Cognitive Map
Cognitive Map Model by Reginald
Golledge and Robert Simpson
Applying the Behavioural Approach
to Agricultural Land Use Theory
• J.H. von Thunen first proposed his theory of
agricultural land use in 1842 – known as “Rent
Theory”
• Rent theory predicts that any given parcel of
land will be used for (allocated to / devoted to)
the “Highest and Best Use”
• Thunian land-use patterns widely documented
but not universal (anomalies)
Goals and Values of Farmers
• 1973 Prof. Ruth Gasson publishes seminal
paper on the goal and values of farmers.
• Agricultural land-use patterns deviate from the
“ideal” because maximizing profits – which Rent
Theory assumes – is not the only factor farmers
take into consideration.
Goals and Values
of Farmers (cont’d_
• Gasson argued that farmers reference four
groupings of values …
•
•
•
•
Intrinsic (an activity valued in its own right)
Expressive (a means of self expression)
Instrumental (means of earning income)
Social (done for sake of interpersonal
relationships)
Ilbery, B.W. 1983, “Goals and values of hop
farmers”, Transactions of the Institute of
British Geographers, Vol. 8: 329-341.
Ilbery’s Study of Hop Farmers in
Herefordshire and Worcestershire
• Surveyed 127 hop farmers
• Respondents shown a list of 20 reasons
• Each scored as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
Essential = 4
Very important = 3
Important = 2
Not really important = 1
Irrelevant = 0
Top Five Reasons
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
Reason
Value
Total
Score
Doing the work
you like
Independence
Intrinsic
342
Intrinsic
340
Satisfactory
income
Respect of
workers
Self-respect for
doing a good job
Instrumental
335
Social
329
Expressive
323
Here’s another example …..
• Smit, B. et al., 1997, “Corn hybrid selection and
climatic variability: Gambling with nature?” The
Canadian Geographer, 41 (4): 429-438.
• Found that after the (warm) year of 1991, a statistically
significant number of farmers selected longer-maturing
and potentially higher-yielding, but riskier varieties.
• After the lower CHU years of 1992 and 1993, farmers'
hybrid selections became markedly more conservative.
Gender-related differences
in Spatial Skills
• Women are underrepresented in jobs requiring
application of spatial skills.
• Some have argued this is because women’s
spatial skills are inferior.
• Self, C.M. et al., 1992, “Gender-related
differences in spatial abilities”, Progress in
Human Geography, Vol.16(3): 315-342.
Spatial abilities include:
(1) Spatial orientation: ability to imagine how
an object would look from another
perspective.
(2) Spatial visualization: ability to mentally
manipulate an object (e.g., mental rotation).
(3) Spatial relations: ability to identify and
analyze spatial patterns and associations.
Theories Advanced to Account
for Male/Female Differences
• Deficiency Theory: differences are biologically
based.
• Difference Theory: differences grounded in
sociocultural processes.
• Inefficiency Theory: performance and behaviour
indicators used tend to favour males.
Self et al. conclude …..
• There is growing evidence that gender-based
differences in spatial skills are narrowing.
• This has happened at the same time that male
and female activity patterns have become more
similar
• Therefore, observed differences may be largely
the result of sociocultural processes
To Summarize
• One of several approaches used by human
geographers.
• Focuses on cognitive processes underlying
geographic behaviour.
• These include perception, cognition, values and
attitudes.
• Attempts to account for sub-optimal decisions
and behaviours
To Summarize
• Behavioural Geography one of several
approaches used to understand human
geographic behaviour
• Questions range from wayfinding to resource
allocations decisions
• Response to limitations with Neo-classical
Economic Determinism
• Draws on psychology (but other disciplines too!)