Post-colonial ethnic strife in Rwanda and Burundi
Relations between the Hutu and the Tutsi peoples in Rwanda and Burundi have long been plagued by extreme
ethnic violence marked by large-scale massacres at the hands of both groups. In both Rwanda and Burundi, the
Hutu make up about 80–85 percent of the population and the Tutsi form a minority of about 10–15 percent.
Despite their minority status, the Tutsi ruled the Hutu from the time they arrived from the north in the 14th or
15th century through the 20th century. Colonial occupation of the territory first by Germany in the late 1900s
and later by Belgium during World War I exacerbated ethnic tensions by institutionalizing the tribal division of
power. The Belgians set up a system by which anyone who had 10 or more cows was arbitrarily classified as a
Tutsi. Every person was forced to carry a card identifying his classification as Hutu or Tutsi, and the
educational system and power structures were designed to keep the Tutsi in power.
The governments of Rwanda and Burundi diverged after independence in 1962, but extraordinary ethnic
violence was to remain a constant in both nations. The first significant postindependence tribal strife occurred in
Rwanda, where the Hutu had seized control of the government in 1959 and established a republic in 1961. The
violence reached its height in late 1963, when an estimated 10,000–20,000 Tutsi were killed in Rwanda and
thousands more were forced to flee the country as the Hutu consolidated their power.
In Burundi, the Tutsi maintained their hold on power as a constitutional monarchy was established following
independence. An unsuccessful coup attempt by Hutu rebels in 1972 that saw the massacre of hundreds of Tutsi
precipitated a brutal response from the government. In quashing the rebellion, the army slaughtered an
estimated 100,000–300,000 Hutu. The Tutsi targeted the Hutu intelligentsia in particular, killing anyone with
more than a high school education. In 1988, battles between Hutu and Tutsi resulted in about 20,000 deaths. In
1994, the deaths of the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi in a suspicious plane crash escalated the ethnic
rivalry, leading to civil war and genocide in Rwanda.
Hutu
The Hutu (also called Bahutu or Wahutu), are people of Central Africa. The Hutu are one of three ethnic groups
that make up the populations of Burundi and Rwanda. (The other two are the Twa and the Tutsi.) Estimates of
the total Hutu population range from 5 to 9.5 million, divided almost equally between the two countries. They
speak a language belonging to the central Bantu group, with some Cushitic influence coming from the Tutsi.
The Hutu arrived in the region in the 1st century ad and developed a mainly agricultural economy, along with
some cattle herding. When the Hutu first entered the area, they found it inhabited by the Twa, Pygmy hunters
whom they forced to retreat. Hutu life centered on small-scale agriculture, and social organization was based on
the clan, with petty kings (bahinza) ruling over limited domains. They were politically and economically
subjugated by the Tutsi upon that people’s arrival in the 14th or 15th century, and they remained under Tutsi
domination thereafter. The Hutu and Tutsi cultures have been largely integrated. The Tutsi adopted the mutually
intelligible Bantu languages of Rwanda and Rundi, which were originally spoken by the Hutu. The Hutu’s
kinship and clan system is probably derived from Tutsi culture, as is the central importance of cattle. The Hutu
and the Tutsi adhere essentially to the same religious beliefs, which include forms of animism and (today)
Christianity.
An unsuccessful Hutu coup attempt took place in Burundi in 1965, and that country’s Hutu remained
subordinate under a Tutsi-dominated military government. In 1972, the Hutu of Burundi rose up against the
Tutsi rulers, but this resulted in massacres on both sides without yielding any change in the Hutu’s status. The
Tutsi remained dominant in Rwanda until the period 1959–61, when the Hutu expelled most of the Tutsi from
the country and took over control of the government. In 1994 civil war between the Hutu and the Tutsi broke
out in Rwanda after that country’s President Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu, was killed in a suspicious airplane
explosion, reigniting the centuries-old hatred between the two peoples. Tens of thousands of Rwandans died in
massacres, and many thousand others fled the country. When the worst of the fighting seemed over, disease,
particularly cholera, continued to ravage the population.
Tutsi
Tutsi (also called Batusi, Tussi, Watusi, or Watutsi) are people of Central Africa. Numbering some 1.5 million,
the Tutsi are one of three ethnic groups that make up the populations of Burundi and Rwanda. (The other two
are the Hutu and the Twa.) The Cushitic-speaking Tutsi traditionally were nomadic pastoralists who probably
originally came from Ethiopia. They arrived in eastern Rwanda from the north in the 14th or 15th century and
subjugated the indigenous inhabitants in a generally slow and peaceful manner. The Tutsi gradually expanded
their dominion westward and began speaking the mutually intelligible Bantu languages, Rwanda and Rundi,
spoken by the Hutu, the agricultural people over whom they established a feudal relationship.
The Tutsi have always been a minority in both countries, today accounting for about 10 percent of the
population in Rwanda and 15 percent in Burundi. It was through their superior knowledge of warfare and their
control over the supply of cattle, a traditional measure of wealth and status, that the Tutsi came to dominate the
Twa and Hutu. The Tutsi became the ruling class of the kingdoms of Rwanda and Burundi, and their cattlecentered culture became the dominant one. The head of their complex pyramidal political structure was the
mwami (king), who was considered to be of divine origin. Hutu and Tutsi cultures have largely integrated. The
Hutu and Tutsi adhere essentially to the same religious beliefs, which include forms of animism and
Christianity.
The rivalry between the Tutsi and the Hutu worsened during the period of colonial rule. In Rwanda, shortly
before independence in 1962, the Hutu majority staged a violent rebellion and seized power. Raids were carried
out repeatedly over the next decade by Tutsi who had been driven from the country. In 1994 civil war between
the Hutu and the Tutsi broke out in Rwanda after that country’s President Juvénal Habyarimana, a Hutu, was
killed, reigniting the centuries-old hatred between the two peoples. Tens of thousands of Rwandans died in
massacres, and many thousand others fled the country. When the worst of the fighting seemed over, disease,
particularly cholera, continued to ravage the population. After the end of the April 1994 massacres, in which as
many as 500,000 people died—most of them Tutsi—the exiled Tutsi began returning to Rwanda. The return of
large numbers of Tutsi, some of whom had been living in neighboring countries since 1959, raised fears of a
return of minority domination.
Similar strife occurred in Burundi, which gained its independence as a Tutsi-ruled kingdom in 1962. After the
establishment of a single-party republic, Tutsi minority rule continued for a time, until a revolt by Hutu peasants
displaced them. In 1972 the Hutu of Burundi staged an uprising, which resulted in a massacre of 100,000 Hutu
by the Tutsi
Rwanda
Landlocked and mountainous, Rwanda is a small but strikingly beautiful country in east-central Africa. It is also
one of the continent’s most densely populated countries. The capital and largest city is Kigali, located on the
Ruganwa River in the center of the country. Area 10,185 square miles (26,379 square kilometers). Population
(2013 est.) 10,777,000.
Land and Climate
Rwanda ranks among Africa’s smallest countries. It is bordered by the Democratic Republic of the Congo and
Lake Kivu on the west, Uganda on the north, Tanzania on the east, and Burundi on the south.
Rwanda’s landscape consists mostly of steep hills alternating with deep valleys. Most of the country lies at an
elevation of more than 5,000 feet (1,500 meters). The Virunga Mountains, a chain of volcanoes, is in the
northwest. In the Virungas is the country’s highest peak, Karisimbi, which reaches 14,787 feet (4,507 meters).
In the west is the Ruzizi River, through which Lake Kivu empties into Lake Tanganyika. The Kagera River, in
the east, is a headstream of the Nile River.
Although Rwanda lies in the tropics, temperatures are generally mild because of the elevation. There are
significant variations, however, between the region of the volcanoes in the northwest, where heavy rainfalls are
accompanied by lower average temperatures, and the warmer and drier interior highlands.
Only a small percentage of Rwanda’s land is covered by natural forest. The Virunga Mountains, however, have
dense bamboo forests that are home to the rare mountain gorilla. Other wildlife includes buffaloes, zebras,
impalas, baboons, warthogs, lions, and hippopotamuses. The animals are protected in national parks and
reserves.
People and Culture
The main ethnic groups in Rwanda are the Hutu and the Tutsi. The Hutu account for more than four fifths of the
population and the Tutsi make up almost all the rest. The Twa, a tribe of hunters and gatherers, make up less
than 1 percent. Despite cultural similarities between the Hutu and Tutsi, they have been enemies for many
years. In both Rwanda and neighboring Burundi, the Tutsi minority historically has dominated the Hutu
majority. Resentments between the two peoples culminated in a brutal civil war and genocide in 1994.
Rwanda has three official languages: Rwanda, French, and English. The Rwanda language, also called
Kinyarwanda, belongs to the widespread African language group called Bantu. Swahili is commonly spoken as
a second language for communication with other African peoples. The dominant religion is Christianity, with
Roman Catholicism as the primary denomination. Muslims form a small religious minority.
Primary education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 7 and 13. The National University of
Rwanda is in Butare. The Rwanda National Museum at Butare exhibits traditional artifacts.
Economy
Rwanda is a poor country with an economy based on agriculture. Farming is very labor intensive because most
of the work is done with hand tools such as hoes and machetes. The leading food crops include plantains, sweet
potatoes, potatoes, cassava, beans, sorghum, and corn (maize). Coffee, tea, and pyrethrum (a flower used to
make pesticide) are grown for export. Commonly raised livestock includes goats, cattle, sheep, and pigs.
Fishing is widespread in Lake Kivu as well as in the smaller lakes of the interior.
Rwanda has a small industrial sector. The largest industry is the processing of agricultural products such as
coffee, tea, and sugar. In addition to food, manufactured products include beer, soft drinks, cement, soap,
textiles, and shoes. The main mineral resources are tin (cassiterite), tungsten (wolfram), and tantalite, all of
which are exported.
Services are a growing part of Rwanda’s economy. Among the important service industries are banking,
information technology, and tourism, which is based on the country’s landscape and wildlife. In an effort to
boost trade with neighboring countries, Rwanda joined the East African Community in 2007.
Rwanda has a well-developed road network, but there are no railways. There are international airports at Kigali
and at Kamembe.
History
The land that became Rwanda was originally inhabited by the Twa. They were closely followed by the Hutu,
who were well established there when the Tutsi appeared in the 14th century. The Tutsi conquered the Hutu and
in the 16th century founded a kingdom near Kigali. The kingdom expanded steadily until Germany made
Rwanda, along with Burundi, part of its colony called German East Africa. The Belgians occupied the region in
1916, and the League of Nations created Ruanda-Urundi as a Belgian mandate in 1922. The mandate became a
United Nations trusteeship after World War II.
The Tutsi retained their dominance until 1961, when a Hutu-led revolution overthrew the monarchy. Rwanda
declared itself a republic and became independent in 1962. The Hutu took control of the government and
stripped the Tutsi of much of their land. Thousands of Tutsi fled Rwanda; by early 1964 at least 150,000 were
in neighboring countries.
Tension between the Hutu and Tutsi escalated in 1990, when rebels of the Tutsi-led Rwandan Patriotic Front
(FPR) invaded from Uganda. A peace agreement signed by the FPR and the government in 1993 called for the
creation of a new government that would include the FPR. Hutu extremists strongly opposed this plan.
In April 1994 the presidents of Rwanda and Burundi were returning from Hutu-Tutsi peace talks in Tanzania
when their plane was shot down near Kigali; both men were killed. This act of terrorism ignited a civil war. The
FPR took control of the country by July, but not before the army and Hutu militia groups massacred more than
800,000 Tutsi and moderate Hutu. After the FPR’s victory, 2 million Rwandans, mostly Hutu, fled to
neighboring Zaire (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo). Hutu extremists used that country as a base for
launching attacks on Rwanda.
In late 1996 Rwandan troops entered Zaire to expel the Hutu extremists. Frustrated by the lack of support from
Zairean president Mobutu Sese Seko, the troops also intervened in the rebellion taking place in that country.
Their support helped Laurent Kabila and his forces to topple Mobutu. Rwanda soon became disillusioned with
Kabila, however, and gave support to rebels trying to oust him from the presidency of what was now called the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Rwanda faced much international criticism over its involvement in Congo’s
civil war, including a suspension of foreign aid.
Displaced by the conflict in Congo, the great majority of the Hutu refugees who had fled Rwanda returned
home. In 2003 Rwanda’s government, facing ongoing Hutu insurgencies, adopted a new constitution aimed at
preventing further ethnic strife. Later that year the country held its first multiparty democratic elections since
independence. However, the events of 1994 continued to weigh heavily in the early 21st century, as trials
continued for those accused of taking part in the genocide.