Chapter 6
Work Motivation
Michael A. Hitt
C. Chet Miller
Adrienne Colella
Slides by R. Dennis Middlemist
Knowledge Objectives
1. Define work motivation and explain why it is important
to organizational success.
2. Discuss how managers can use Maslow’s need
hierarchy and ERG theory to motivate associates.
3. Explain how Herzberg’s two-factor theory of
motivation has influenced current management
practice.
4. Describe how need for achievement, need for
affiliation, and need for power relate to work
performance and motivation.
Knowledge Objectives
5. Discuss the application of expectancy theory to
motivation.
6. Understand equity theory and procedural justice, and
discuss how fairness judgments influence work
motivation.
7. Explain how goal-setting theory can be used to
motivate associates.
8. Describe how to enrich jobs and how job enrichment
can enhance motivation.
9. Based on all theories of work motivation, describe
specific actions that can be taken to increase and
sustain employee motivation.
Motivation

Motivation
–
–
–
Forces within a person
Willful direction, intensity, and persistence of
the person’s efforts
Achieving specific goals not due to
 Ability
 Environmental
demands
Motivation


Person’s level of performance is a function (f)
of both ability and motivation:
Performance = f (Ability x Motivation)
Theories of Motivation
–
–
Content theories
Process theories
Content Theories: Need Hierarchy
SelfActualization
People motivated by desire to
satisfy specific needs, arranged in
a hierarchical order of prepotency*
Esteem Needs
Social and
Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Physiological Needs
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
*Lower level needs must be
satisfied before a person
can be motivated by
higher level needs
Content Theories: ERG Theory
SelfActualization
Growth Needs
Esteem Needs
Relatedness
Needs
Social and
Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
Existence Needs
Physiological Needs
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Adapted from: Exhibit 6-1 Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory Compared
Alderfer’s ERG
Theory
Content Theories: ERG Theory

Two differences between Maslow’s and
Alderfer’s theories
–
Notion of prepotency is not fixed in ERG theory


–
May become concerned about a higher order need before
lower order need is satisfied
May still have strong desire to satisfy lower order need,
even when the higher order need seems most important
Even when a need is satisfied, it may remain as the
dominant motivator if the next need in the hierarchy
cannot be satisfied (frustration-regression process)
Content Theories: Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power

People with a high need for achievement
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Prefer to set their own goals
Set goals of moderate difficulty, but that are achievable
Like to solve problems rather than leave the results to chance
Are more interested in achieving the goal than in the
associated rewards
Prefer situations in which they receive regular, concrete
feedback on their performance
Are positive thinkers who find workable solutions to life’s
hurdles and challenges
Take a strong personal responsibility for their work
Content Theories: Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power

People with a high need for affiliation
–
–
–
Have a strong desire to be liked and to stay on good terms
with most other people.
Tend not to make good managers because they often treat
different people in different ways (for example, may apply
inconsistent rules)
Are more concerned with initiating and maintaining personal
relationships than with focusing on the task at hand
Content Theories: Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power

People with a high need for institutional power
–
–

Are concerned about the functioning of the organization and
have a desire to serve others
Are controlled in their exercise of power
People with a high need for personal power
–
–
–
–
Desire to influence others for their own personal gain
Are more impulsive in exercising power
Show little concern for other people
Are focused on obtaining symbols of prestige and status (such
as big offices)
Content Theories: Achievement,
Affiliation, and Power Conclusion

People with a high need for institutional power are
particularly good at
–
–
–

People high in need for achievement
–
–

Increasing morale
Creating clear expectations
Getting others to work for the good of the organization
Take responsibility for their own work and require short-term
feedback
Are reluctant to delegate work to others and to be patient in
working toward long-term objectives
Effective managers have both a high need for
achievement and a high need for institutional power
Two-Factor Theory



Focuses on the rewards or outcomes of
performance that satisfy individuals’ needs
Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not
opposites ends of the same continuum but are
independent states
Job factors leading to satisfaction are different
from those leading to dissatisfaction, and vice
versa
Two-Factor Theory
When increased, lead
to greater satisfaction
When deficient, lead to
greater dissatisfaction
Motivators
Hygienes
Achievement
Recognition
Salary
Technical supervision
Responsibility
Opportunity for advancement
or promotion
The work itself
Potential for personal growth
Working conditions
Company policies,
administration, and procedures
Interpersonal relationships with
peers, supervisors, and
subordinates
Status
Security
Process Theories:
Expectancy Theory

Three factors affect decision to exert effort
–
Expectancy

–
Instrumentality

–
subjective probability that effort will lead to performance
subjective probability that a given level of performance will
lead to certain outcomes
Valence

An Individual’s expected satisfaction associated with each
outcome resulting from performance
Expectancy Theory
Motivational
Force = Effort E
Performance
E = Subjective probability that
effort will lead to performance
I = Subjective probability that
performance will lead to various
outcomes
V = Valence = Expected
satisfaction with each outcome
Motivational Force = E C S(I C V)
Adapted from Exhibit 6-2 Expectancy Theory
I2
Outcome 2
V1
I3 Outcome 1
Outcome 3
V2
I1
V3
Process Theories:
Expectancy Theory

To increase motivation
–
–
–
Heighten expectancy by increasing associates’
beliefs that exerting effort will lead to higher levels of
performance (training, support)
Increase instrumentalities by clearly linking high
performance to outcomes (pay for performance)
Increase valence by providing outcomes that are
highly valued (provide rewards employees desire)
Process Theories: Equity Theory

Motivation is based on a person’s assessment
of the ratio of the outcomes or rewards (pay,
status) he receives for input on the job (effort,
skills) compared with the same ratio for a
comparison other
My Outcomes vs. Other’s Outcomes
My inputs
Other’s Inputs
Process Theories: Equity Theory
IF
My Outcomes
My inputs
=\
Other’s Outcomes
Other’s Inputs
Employees may
–
–
–
–
–
–
Increase or decrease inputs
Change their outcomes
Distort their perceptions of inputs and/or outcomes
Distort perceptions of other’s inputs and/or
outcomes
Change the referent others
Leave the organization
Procedural Justice
Based on
accurate
information
Formal
grievance
procedures
Procedures
free from
bias
Procedures
applied
consistently
Voice in the
decision
process
Ethical code
Treated with
respect
Procedural
Justice
Given
reasons for
decisions
Goal-Setting Theory

Goal-setting theory
–
Difficult and specific goals increase human
performance because the affect effort, persistence,
and direction of behavior





Goal difficulty
Goal specificity
Goal commitment
Participation in setting goals
Feedback
Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Exhibit 6-3
Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Factors Increasing the Desirability of Attaining a Given Goal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
The goal is set by an appropriate authority figure.
Rewards and punishments are tied to goal attainment (or failure).
The goal fosters a sense of self-achievement and potential for development.
The goal assigner is perceived as trustworthy.
The goal assigner is supportive and promotes self-efficacy.
Peer models are committed to the goal.
The goal assigner provides a rationale for the goal.
The goal provides a challenge to prove oneself and meets ego needs.
The goal is public.
Factors Increasing the Perceived Ability of Attaining a Given Goal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
There is high self-efficacy on the task.
There are successful role models
The task is not impossibly difficult
Expectancy for success is high.
There is competition with others.
Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory
Exhibit 6-4
Motivation Practices Resulting from Motivation Theories
Motivation Practices
Motivation
Theories
Need Hierarchies
Maslow
ERG
Find Meaningful Tie Rewards Redesign Provide
Clarify
Individual
to
Jobs
Feedback Expectations
Rewards
Performance
and Goals
X
X
X
McClelland’s Needs X
X
Herzberg’s
Two-Factor Theory
X
X
X
X
Expectancy Theory X
X
X
X
Equity Theory
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Goal-Setting Theory
Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory

Tie individual rewards to individual needs
–
–
–

Individuals differ on what they find “rewarding”
Tailor individual rewards to individual needs
Do not overemphasize extrinsic rewards
Tie rewards to performance
–
–
–
Performance is difficult to measure
Managers may lack flexibility in determining rewards
Intrinsic rewards may work when extrinsic rewards
are unavailable
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory

Redesign jobs
–
–
Job enlargement: add tasks of equal complexity to
increase variety and use of skills
Job enrichment: make jobs more motivating by
increasing responsibility





Skill variety
Task identity
Task significance
Autonomy
Feedback
Motivating Associates: Integration of Theory

Provide feedback
–
–
–
–
–
In conjunction with goals
Repeat at regular intervals
Provide information as to how performance can be
improved
Come from a credible source
Focus on the performance, not the person
Clarify Expectations and Goals



Motivating potential of goals
Align individual goals with organizational goals
Management by Objectives
–
–
–
–
Together, the supervisor and associate establish the
associate’s short-term performance goals
Regular meetings are held to discuss the associate’s progress
in meeting the goals
Checkpoints and benchmarks are established to measure the
associate’s progress
A discussion is held at the end of some time period to evaluate
the associate’s accomplishment of the goals