Landmines and Cluster Bombs:
An Enduring Problem
Brief History of Landmines
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14th century Chinese text, the Huolongjing,
describes a mine made of bamboo, black powder,
and lead pellets. It was placed underground.
Detonated by a flint device that directed sparks
onto a series of fuses
Brief History of Landmines
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In 1500s, fougasse mines
were developed.
Buried explosives, covered
with rocks or metal
Detonated by tripwires or by
long fuses
High maintenance, and due to
susceptibility of black powder
to dampness.
Brief History of Landmines
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First modern, mechanically
detonated anti-personnel mines
created by Confederate troops under
Brigadier General Gabriel Raines
Raines had begun working with
explosive booby traps in the
Seminole Wars in Florida in 1849
Used more reliable and reproducible
mechanical detonation devices
Brief History of Landmines
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Improved mines were
designed in Imperial Germany
around 1912
Designs were copied and
manufactured by all major
participants in the First World
War
Brief History of Landmines
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Antipersonnel mines were
first used on a large scale in
WWII
Initially used to protect
antitank mines, to stop them
from being removed by
enemy soldiers
Later antipersonnel mines
used to slow or halt enemy
movement, by being placed in
great numbers
Design
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Triggered by a variety of
means (pressure, vibration,
movement, magnetism)
Many have an additional
touch or tilt trigger, to
prevent enemy engineers
from defusing it.
Design
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Use as little metal as possible,
to make location by metal
detectors more difficult.
Mines made mostly from
plastic are also very cheap to
produce
Design
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Wide variety of designs
Makes detection and
disarming very difficult
Design
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Claymores
Design
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Claymores
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Stake mines
Design
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Claymores
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Stake mines
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Bounding fragmentation
mines
Design
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Often deliberately designed to
maim, rather than kill
Stabilizing and evacuating an
injured soldier hampers an
actively fighting force
More resources are taking up by
caring for an injured solder than
dealing with a dead soldier
Cheap and easy to make, around
$1 each
(can cost more than $1000 to find
and destroy)
Marking minefields
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Ideally, minefields laid by
armies should be well
marked, to prevent friendly
troops from entering
All mines locations should be
recorded, since warning signs
can be removed or destroyed,
and so safe routes through
the mine fields can be
followed by friendly soldiers
Unreliable marking
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In the “fog of war” protocols are
not always accurately followed
New landmines designed to be
scattered by helicopter, plane, by
artillery, or ejected from cruise
missiles, make precise recording
impossible
(US air deployed mines have a
self-deactivating design, but
reliability is uncertain)
Deliberately unmarked fields
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Non-state armies (rebel groups, guerilla fighters) do not reliably
uphold these conventions
Often, their goal is to spread fear and panic in the community,
and deliberately terrorize civilians. So mined areas are
deliberately not marked
Such tactics were regularly employed in the Southern African
conflicts throughout the ’70s and 80’s:
Angola, Mozambique, Nambia, South Africa, Zimbabwe, are still
plagued with landmines as a result.
Landmines are indiscriminate
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The vast majority of victims are
civilians, not soldiers.
According to the Landmine
Monitor Report 2003, only 15% of
reported casualties were military
personnel
Mines remain after conflict ends
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Most of the countries where
casualties are reported are at
peace
In 2002-2003, 41 of the 65
countries that reported new
mine casualties were not
experiencing any armed
conflict
Landmines placed during WWI
sometimes still cause deaths
in parts of Europe and North
Africa
Long term costs to survivors
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Permanent disability is almost
certain
A growing child needs a
prosthetic limb frequently
refitted each year, and few
can afford this
Many face social exclusion,
such as being seen as unfit to
marry
Some children never return to
school after their accident
Long term costs to survivors
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A death might cost a family
their primary breadwinner
For survivors, vocational
training and support is often
unavailable
Many struggle to make a
living after their accident, and
become a burden on their
families
Victims often end up begging
on the streets
Mines hamper recovery after
conflict ends
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People in some of the poorest
countries are deprived of their
productive land and
infrastructure
Farm lands, orchards,
irrigation canals, and wells
may no longer be accessible
Mines cut off access to
economically important areas,
such as roads, dams, and
electricity towers
Mines hamper recovery after
conflict ends
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Landmines slow repatriation of
refugees after a conflict ceases,
or prevent it altogether
They hamper the delivery of relief
services, and injure or kill aid
workers
Widespread problem
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More than 75 countries are
affected by undetonated
mines
Some of the most
contaminated places:
• Afghanistan, Angola,
Burundi, Bosnia &
Herzegovina,
Cambodia, Chechnya,
Colombia, Iraq, Nepal,
Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
India, and Pakistan
Widespread problem
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Nobody knows how many mines
are still in the ground worldwide
The actual number is less
important than their impact:
It can only take a few mines, or
just the suspicion of their
presence, to make an area
unusable
Treaties
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Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons
AKA “Convention on Prohibitions or Restrictions
on the Use of Certain Conventional Weapons
Which May Be Deemed to Be Excessively
Injurious or to Have Indiscriminate Effects”
AKA “The CCW”
• Was an amendment to the Geneva Conventions of 1949
• Concluded in Geneva on October 1980, went in to force in
December 1983
• Amended again in 1996
CCW
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Consisted of 5 protocols
Protocol II concerns “Prohibitions or Restrictions on the Use
of Mines, Booby-Traps, and Other Devices”
Prohibits the use of non-self-destructing or non-selfdeactivating mines outside fenced, monitored, and marked
areas
CCW
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Unfortunately, CCW lacked specific mechanisms to ensure
verification and enforcement of compliance, and had no
formal process for resolving disputes about compliance.
The US only signed 2 of the 5 protocols, the minimum
required to be considered a signatory
Continue Toll
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NGOs continued to see toll
mines took in the various
communities they had been
working in, in Africa, Asia, the
Middle East, and Latin
America
They knew only a complete
ban would adequately address
the problem
The ICBL
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The International Campaign
to Ban Land Mines (ICBL) was
launched in 1992
Formed from 6 NGOs
(Handicap International,
Human Rights Watch, Medico
International, Mines Advisory
Group, Physicians for Human
Rights, and Vietnam Veterans
of America Foundation)
Lobbied governments and
rallied public support for a
complete ban
Celebrity Support
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The late Princess Diana
focused attention on the
problem of landmines, and
the need for a ban
Visited Angola and Bosnia
with mine clearing
organizations, and focused
the media spotlight on the
victims
Her work brought increased
public support and pressure
on governments to sign the
treaty
The Mine Ban Treaty
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“The Convention on the
Prohibition of the Use,
Stockpiling, Production, and
Transfer of Anti-Personnel Mines
and Their Destruction”
AKA “The Mine Ban Treaty”
Signed by 122 governments in
Ottawa, Canada in December
1997
The Requirements
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Signatories must stop production and deployment of antipersonnel mines
They must destroy all anti-personnel mines in its possession
within 4 years
(A small number of mines may remain for purposes of training
mine detection and clearance)
Within 10 years, the country should have cleared all of its mined
areas
Mine affected countries are eligible for international assistance for
mine clearance and victim assistance once they sign the Mine Ban
Treaty
Signatories to the Treaty
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As of August 2007, 155
State Parties had signed
Only 40 states remain
outside the treaty
Notable exclusions:
China, Cuba, Iran, North
Korea, Libya, Pakistan,
Russia, Syria, and United
States
US Refusal to Sign
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The US refuses to sign the
treaty because it does not
offer a “Korean exception”
Argues landmines are crucial
to its strategy in South Korea
One million mines along the
DMZ between North and
South Korea
Believes it maintains a
delicate peace by deterring a
North Korean attack
US Contribution to the Problem
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U.S. used antipersonnel mines in
Vietnam, Korea, and first Gulf War
From 1969-1992, U.S. exported
over 5 million antipersonnel mines
to over 30 countries
Those include Afghanistan, Angola,
Cambodia, Iraq, Laos, Lebanon,
Mozambique, Nicaragua, Rwanda,
Somalia, and Vietnam
U.S. made mines have been found
in at least 28 of these mine affected
countries or regions
Worldwide Recognition
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The coordinator of the International Campaign to Ban
Landmines, Jody Williams, won the 1997 Nobel Peace Prize
for her work
Current Status
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Landmines continue to pose a
threat to citizens
The most landmine affected
countries are Afghanistan,
Angola, and Cambodia
The middle east has been
called the “landmine
heartland,” with tens of
millions of buried landmines
Current Status
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Every 28 minutes, someone
steps on a landmine
Landmines are estimated to
kill or injure approximately
18,000 people every year
Continued Mine Use
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Only 2 states continue to
deploy new mines
Myanmar’s military forces
continue to use antipersonnel
mines extensively
Russia continues to use
mines, primarily in Chechnya,
but also in Dagestan and on
the borders of Tajikistan and
Georgia
Continued Mine Use
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Israel may have laid
antipersonnel mines in the
2006 conflict with South
Lebanon
Russian peacekeepers claim
Georgian military forces laid
new landmines, despite its
moratorium on landmine use
Cessation of Use
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Nepal, with its cease-fire in
2006
Angola, since the April 2002
peace agreement
Sri Lanka, since the cease-fire
in 2001
Rebel use has stopped in
Angola, Sri Lanka, Macedonia,
Senegal, and Uganda
The Bad News
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13 countries still produce or
retain the right to produce
antipersonnel mines
Forty countries outside the
Mine Ban Treaty together
possess 160 million
antipersonnel mines
New Production
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The ICBL identified the
following countries as
manufacturing landmines as
of August 2004:
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Singapore
Vietnam
Burma
Nepal
India
Pakistan
Russia
Cuba
Iran
North Korea
United States
US Production
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US has failed to adopt sign
the Mine Ban Treaty, or adopt
an official moratorium
Since US stockpiles are at
capacity, there had not been
any US based production of
antipersonnel mines since
1997
Bush Administration Policy
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February 2004, President
Bush announced his landmine
policy
No intention of joining the
Mine Ban Treaty
Continued development and
production of antipersonnel
mines
(although selfdestructing/deactivating)
Companies Producing Mines
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In the US, no company
produces mines from
beginning to end
Companies only produce
component parts, which are
assembled in governmentowned, contractor operated
army ammunition plants
Companies Producing Mines
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Seventeen US companies,
formerly involved in
producing antipersonnel
mines, declined to
renounce future
production:
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AAI Corp
Allen-Bradley
Alliant Techsystems, Inc.
Accudyne Corp
Ferrulmatic, Inc.
CAPCO, Inc.
Dale Electronics, Inc.
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Ensign-Bickford Industries,
Inc.
General Electric
Lockheed Martin Corp.
Mohawk Electrical
Systems, Inc.
Nomura Enterprise, Inc.
Parlex Corp.
Quantic Industries, Inc.
Raytheon
Thiokol Corp.
Vishay Sprague
New US Production
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In July 2006, Pentagon
announced it had awarded
contracts to two companies or
the development of a new
landmine system
(Alliant Techsystems, and
Textron Systems)
Called “the Spider”
Deploys triplines, that can be
activated remotely by a
monitoring soldier
May also be activated by the
victim (as in a conventional
mine)
New US Production
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Congress stalled the
production by requiring the
Pentagon to first study the
possible indiscriminate
consequences of deploying
this weapon.
The issue is only delayed until
the study is submitted to
Congress
Removing Mines
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Even after production
is halted, mines must
be removed from the
ground
Removing Mines
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Mechanical Devices
• Mine flails may only be
80% effective (good
enough for military use)
Removing Mines
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For Humanitarian De-mining,
UN sets a standard of 99.6%
removal
Communities must feel safe
returning to their lives
Most mines must be detected
and removed/deactivated by
hand
Removing Mines
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Humanitarian De-miners first
try to restore access to
productive land and vital
infrastructure
For example: clearing a path
to a water source, or a village
school
Removing Mines
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De-mining by hand is time
consuming, labor intensive,
and dangerous
Mines are rarely placed in flat,
open fields
Terrain is often rocky and
steep
Removing Mines
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Proper protective
equipment is
expensive
Removing Mines
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Some countries can
not afford such
protective equipment
Possible New Methods
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Gambian Giant
Pouched Rat
Can be trained with
food rewards to
find certain odors
Too small to set off
the mines
Possible New Methods
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Honey bees
May be
trained to
detect
chemical
odors from
mines
Possible New Methods
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The mustard Arabidopsis
thaliana normally turns red
under harsh conditions
Scientists have bred a
strain that turns red in
response to the nitrous
oxide that leaks from
landmines and other
explosives
Possible New Methods
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A bacterium has been
genetically engineered that
will fluoresce under UV light
in the presence of TNT
Could be sprayed over an
entire field to detect mines
Some Good News
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Since the Mine Ban Treaty:
• World-wide production
has fallen considerably
• Trade has almost come
to a halt
Some Good News
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In 2006, over 450
square km of mined
land was cleared and
put back into
productive use
Some Good News
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Mine risk education
reached 7.3 million
people, to protect
them from the danger
of mines
Some Good News
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Since the treaty,
there has been
widespread
destruction of
stockpiled mines
What You Can Do
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Support organizations that aid countries in
clearing mined fields, providing assistance
to victims, and lobby for continued
government action against landmines
Volunteer time and money
What You Can Do
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HALO (Hazardous Area LifeSupport Organization)
A British and American NPO whose
purpose is to remove landmines and
unexploded ordinance left behind
after a war
Operates in 9 countries, and has
over 7000 mine-clearers
Largest operation is in Afghanistan
Has removed 30,000 mines in
Angola since the end of their war in
1994
What You Can Do
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Clear Path International
Assists the civilian victims of
landmines and other
explosive remnants of war
Supports prosthetic clinics
Delivers prostheses to remote
areas far from medical care
What You Can Do
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Adopt-A-Minefield Campaign
Works primarily through the UN to clear
mine fields in some of the most heavily
mined countries in the world
Works with a number of organizations to
provide relief to landmine survivors
Cleared over 21 million square meters of
land in Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and
Herzegovina, Cambodia, Laos, and
Vietnam
Provided over $1.5 million for survivor
assistance projects
What You Can Do
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Marshall Legacy
Institute
Contributors can
sponsor a minedetection dog
What you can do
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Support the International Campaign to Ban Landmines
Challenge elected officials (and candidates) to sign the
Mine Ban Treaty
Cluster Bombs
Cluster Bomb Design
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Air dropped or ground
launched munitions
that eject a number of
smaller munitions
(“bomblets”)
Variety of designs
Variety of types of
bomblets
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Anti-personnel
Incendiary
Anti-tank
Anti-runway
Anti-electrical
Cluster Bomb Design
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Depending on the type and
size of cluster bomb, a
single munition may
contain over 2000
bomblets
Large Strike Area
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Bomblets are scattered
over a very wide area
The area hit by a single
cluster munition can be
as large as 2 or 3
football fields.
With such a wide area,
civilians are frequently
hit inadvertently
Unexploded Ordinance
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Not all bomblets detonate on
impact
They remain live, and can
explode if handled
Essentially act as landmines
Intrinsic Failure Rate
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For example:
• U.S. made M26 warheads
with M77 submunitions are
designed to have a 5% dud
rate;
• In reality, they have a dud
rate closer to 16%
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M483A1 DPICM artillery
delivered cluster bombs have
a reported dud rate of 14%
Small Failures Add Up
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Given that each cluster
bomb contains
hundreds of bomblets,
and are fired in
volleys…
…even a small failure
rate can lead to
hundreds or thousands
of unexploded
ordinances scattered
about
Continue to be a Danger
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Like landmines,
they may still be
live and deadly
even many years
after deployed
Unintended Deadliness
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Some cluster
bomblets are brightly
colored to increase
their visibility and
warn off civilians
However, the color,
combined with their
small and nonthreatening
appearance, cause
children to interpret
them as toys
Tragic Oversight
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In the War in
Afghanistan,
humanitarian rations
dropped from airplanes
were in similar yellow
colored packaging as
undetonated BLU-97B
bomblets
After several deaths, the
humanitarian packages
were changed to blue,
then to transparent, to
try to avoid such
confusion
Ongoing Deaths
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In Vietnam, people are still being killed from cluster bombs
dropped by U.S. and Vietnamese forces; up to 300 every
year
Unexploded cluster bombs kill more civilians in post-war
Kosovo than landmines
Citizens in Lebanon are being injured and killed by
unxploded bomblets left from the 2006 conflict with Irseal
Cluster bomblets kill and maim civilians in Iraq and
Afghanistan as we try to gain local support
CCW
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Protocol V of the UN
Convention on Certain
Conventional Weapons
covers “explosive
remnants of war”
Sometimes applied to the
topic of cluster munitions
Has little power to enforce,
and the primary users of
cluster weapons are not
signatories
Cluster Munitions Coalition
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Following failure of the CCW
review in 2006 to effectively
address the humanitarian
crisis of cluster munitions,
CMC begun
A network of more than 200
NGOs, faith-based groups,
and professional organizations
Includes global organizations,
such as Handicap
International, International
Campaign to Ban Landmines,
and Human Rights Watch
The Oslo Process
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Through the CMC, the Norwegian Government, along with
Austria, Ireland, Mexico, New Zealand, and Peru,
announced its intention to establish a new international
process to establish a treaty banning cluster bombs
Will also increase clearance of contaminated land, and
provide assistance to victims
In Feb 2007, 46 nations met in Oslo, committed themselves
to completing this treaty by 2008, and began to shape the
document
As of November 2007, 84 states were participating in the
Oslo Process
Taking an Example from the Mine
Ban Treaty
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CMC is calling on governments to make a strong and
comprehensive treaty, that will make a real difference in
peoples lives, without exceptions, delays, or loopholes
Government must publicly endorse the previous draft in
order to participate in the next conference
Despite not being a superpower, smaller countries are
taking decisive steps, and not waiting for larger countries to
come around
Global Day of Action
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The Global Day of Action to
Ban Cluster Bombs
April 19, 2008
Occurs one month before
the Dublin Diplomatic
Conference on Cluster
Munitions (May 19-30,
2008)
What You Can Do
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Get involved!
CMC gives advice on
organizing events to
demonstrate public
support, raise
awareness, and
pressure governments
to ban cluster
munitions
What You Can Do

Question candidates about their position on cluster munitions
• A September 6, 2006, the Senate amendment to ban the use of
cluster bombs in civilian areas was voted on
• Senator Clinton voted no
• Senator Obama voted yes
Questions?