Conservation of Asian Tigers
Mike Szymanski
Sean Bertie
Neil Kadrmas
Sandy Hagen
Introduction
• 5 subspecies of tigers existing today
–
–
–
–
–
Amur or Siberian (Panthera tigris altaica)
Bengal (Panthera tigris tigris)
South China (Panthera tigris amoyensis)
Sumatran (Panthera tigris sumatrae)
Indochinese (Panthera tigris corbetti)
Extinct Tigers
• Javan (Panthera tigris sondaica)
• Bali (Panthera tigris balica)
• Caspian (Panthera tigris virgata)
Extinct Tigers-Javan
• Last seen in 1972
• Prime causes for extinction
– Poisons (poisoned boar)
– Encroachment of
plantations
• These coincided w/ a loss
of large ungulate prey base
• Currently no room for
tigers on Java
Extinct Tigers-Bali
• Believed to have gone
extinct in 1937
• The Dutch colonization in
1910 brought
– Plantations
– Hunters
• Similar losses of habitat
as the Javan
• Currently no room on
Bali for tigers
Extinct Tigers-Caspian
• Last one reportedly shot in 1959
• Preferred reed beds, but these were reclaimed as
ag land
• Probably also due to civil unrest
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Largest subspecies of
all tigers
• Males
– nearly 11 feet long
– weighing in around
660 pounds
• Females
– up to 8 1/2 feet long
– weighing about 200 to
370 pounds.
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Distinguished from the
other subspecies by
– Wider spaced brown
stripes
– Paler orange fur
– White belly fur
– Thicker, longer hair
with thick neck tuft
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Currently around 400
survive in the wild Russia,
China and possibly
N.Korea
• Numbers and range have
shrunk dramatically in the
past 100 years with a
recent increased declines
since the 1990’s
• Important that 400 may
not be the actual “effective
population”
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Causes of the population declines
– Poaching
– Habitat loss
• Habitat loss arrived in eastern Russia with the
railroads.
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Habitat requirements of the Siberian tiger
– Not really any for the tigers per se
– BUT, their food does have habitat requirements
– Red Deer (Cervus eluphus xanthropygus)
• Prefer forests with small openings
– Wild Boar (Sus scrofa)
• Prefer forests with mast producing trees
• Primarily Korean Pine (Pinus koraiensis)
• Probably also Mongolian Oak (Quercus mongolica)
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Wild Boar
• Red Deer
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Habitat loss
– Widespread deforestation
– Large scale harvest of Korean Pine
• Primary effects of habitat loss
– Creation of a sink for dispersing tigers
– Loss of habitat for prey
• Why?
– Increased encounters with humans
– Increased depredations
increased license hunting
– Gives false impression of population size due to more
visible tigers
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Why? contd.
– Large home ranges
• Female 200-400 km2
• Male 800-1000 km2
• Male home ranges
typically overlap 2
or 3 female home
ranges
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Habitat Protection
• Protect what is left
(save what you can
now, think about
improvements later)
– Primary concern areas
are those with with
pristine forest
remaining
– No permanent signs of
humans should exist
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Secondary areas of
emphasis should be
those forests that are
90% intact, but some
logging is taking place.
– Only selective logging
would be allowed
– This would leave only
small gaps
– Logging roads would be
closed when not in use
• Tertiary areas of
concern are those of
mixed land uses where
70% forest remains
– Mixed land uses would
persist
– Human operations
would be closed
whenever possible
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Most importantly
for all three areas of
protection concern
– Maintain a large
ungulate prey base
• Concentrate on
habitat for tiger prey
Amur (Siberian) Tiger
• Tiger corridors
– May provide cover to allow
tigers to disperse
– Could help prevent the “sink”
effect of open areas
– Would probably allow enough
dispersal for a reasonable
genetic flow between
fragmented populations
– Would increase the “effective”
population size
– Do not, however, provide
home range habitat (too
narrow)
Panthera tigris tigris
The Bengal Tiger
Distribution, Life History,
Population
• Distributions
-The Bengal tiger
occurs primarily
throughout India, with
smaller populations in
southern Nepal,
Bangladesh, Bhutan,
and western Myanmar
Population
• According to Peter Jacksons’ editorial in May of 1998 the
numbers of Bengal Tigers are as follows:
• Bangladesh-362 individuals
• Bhutan-91 adults
• China-35 individuals
• India-3,750 individuals
• Myanmar-231individuals
• Nepal-97 adults
Life History
• Size
Male Bengal tigers
average 2.9 meters (9
1/2 feet) from head to
tail and weigh about
220 kilograms (480
pounds). Females are
smaller, measuring
about 2.5 meters (8
feet) in length and
weighing
approximately 140
kilograms (300
pounds).
Life History
• Color
– Most tigers are redish
brown in color with
dark stripes and white
stomachs.
– Records indicate
however, that a few
wild tigers have been
seen in unusual colors,
including all white and
all black .
Have you heard of Jenny Craig?
White Tigers
• A popular attraction in
zoos, white tigers in the
wild were recorded in
India during the Mughal
Period from 1556 to
1605 AD
• At least 17 instances
were recorded in India
between 1907 and 1933
in Orissa, Bilaspur,
Sohagpur and Rewa
• But mostly found in zoos
today.
South China Tiger
• An estimated 20-30
individuals South
China tigers still exist
in the wild. Currently
47 South China tigers
live in 18 zoos, all in
China.The South
China tiger is the most
critically endangered
of all tiger subspecies.
South China Distribution
South China Tiger
• Chinese specialists believe
between 20 and 30 tigers
are still left in the wild.
The last time a wild tiger
was seen in the wild was
10 years ago. These facts
suggest that the South
China tiger is the rarest of
the five living tiger
subspecies, the most
threatened, and the closest
to extinction.
General Information
• The South China tiger is one
of the smallest tiger
subspecies
• Males are ~150 kilograms
(330 pounds)
• Females are ~110 kilograms
(240 pounds)
• Because there are so few
wild South China tigers, and
they have rarely been seen,
very little is know about
them at this point in time
• The tiger is a favorite subject
of Chinese artists, depicted
as fierce and powerful
Biology
• Age: The life span the South China and Bengal in the wild
is about 10 to 15 years. Tigers in zoos live to be around 16
and 20 years old.
• Fur: Tiger hair length varies geographically. In the
southern subspecies the hairs are short (approximately 7 to
20 mm on the back and 15 to 35 mm on the stomach).
• Claws: The forefeet have five toes and the hind feet have
four toes. All toes have claws. The claws are 3-4 inches.
• Teeth: Adult tigers have 30 large teeth. The length of the
canine teeth can be between 2.5 to 3 inches.
• Chromosomes: Chromosomes are arranged in pairs and
there are 19 pairs or 38 total.
Food
• Bengal and South China
tigers prey primarily on
wild deer and bovids.
Management Implications
• According to the study by James Smith et al.
Tigers must have the following in order to have a
viable population
• Very high ratio of good to excellent habitat
– When the “good” habitat in less that 50% breeding
tigers will not occur in the area. If it drops to less than
30% no tigers will be found
•
•
•
•
Little or no metapopulations
Stop poaching
Stop or decrease habitat loss
Increase prey number
– The prey numbers are down because of habitat loss
“Good Habitat”
• Tropical evergreen and
deciduous forests
• Coniferous, scrub oak, and
birch woodlands
• The mangrove swamps, and
dry thorn forests of
northwestern India, and the
tall grass jungles at the foot
of Himalayas
• The tiger's habitat
requirements can be
summarized as: some form
of dense vegetative cover,
sufficient large ungulate
prey and access to water.
Loss of Habitat
• Much of the forest and almost all of the grasslands have
gone as a growing human population converts them to land
for settlement and agriculture.
• In Nepal, between 1990 and 1995, 1.1 percent of the
country’s forest cover was lost each year.
• Habitat loss has resulted in fragmented tiger distributions
in Nepal. (ultimately decreasing the population)
• Many of these populations are currently too small to have
long term viability
Poaching
• Tiger parts are used in traditional Chinese medicine, in the form of
tiger bone wine and tiger plasters.
• Primary consumers of tiger products are Chinese communities
throughout the world.
• Drastic rise in tiger poaching was first noticed in 1990.
• If the present worldwide rate of poaching continues for three to six
more years, many tiger populations may be extinct
• They are protected by the Convention in International Trade in
Endangered Species of Fauna and Flora (CITES)
• Nepal has had serious problems at the national level with endangered
species trade control and CITES enforcement, serving as an important
conduit in the illegal trade of tiger parts.
Sumatran Tigers
» Panthera tigris sumatrae
Distribution
• Sumatran tigers are only
found on the island of
Sumatra
• About 400 to 500
Sumatran tigers live in the
wild, mostly in the island's
five national parks.
Another 235 Sumatran
tigers live in zoos around
the world
Life History
• What do Sumatran
Tigers look like?
– Sumatran tigers are the
smallest subspecies of
tiger. It has the darkest
coat of all tigers. Its
broad, black stripes are
closely spaced and
often doubled. Unlike
the Siberian tiger, it
has striped forelegs
Life History
• Weight
– Male Sumatran tigers weigh
about 264 pounds
– Female Sumatran tigers
weigh about 198 pounds
• Length
– Male Sumatran tigers
average 8 feet from head to
tail
– Female Sumatran tigers are
smaller, about 7 feet in
length.
Food
• The Sumatran tiger
eats wild pig, rusa
deer, muntjak or
barking deer which is
a smaller deer
Habitat
• The Sumatran tiger is
found in habitat that
ranges from lowland
forest to sub mountain
and mountain forest
with some peat-moss
forest
• Population density in
these areas are about
4-5 tigers per 100km²
Deforestation and Poaching
• Deforestation is
depriving tigers of
needed habitat leading
to subpopulations
• Poaching is
accelerating leading
from deforestation;
Tigers are easier to
find in these areas of
less habitat
Conservation
• Sumatran Tiger Project
– This is a long-term field study designed to develop a
cost-effective field census system for wild tigers using
ground-based census counts, remote camera census,
and radio-telemetry that can be modified and used as a
model for long-term population monitoring in Way
Kambas and other protected areas. Researchers will
establish a set of life history characteristics that will be
critical in developing effective interactive management
strategies for wild populations
Conservation
• Sumatran Tiger Project
cont.
– The project is also looking
to educate the people and
allocate forest resources in
tiger habitat
– This project has been
ongoing for multiple years
and is keeping track of the
number of tigers in each
area through several
methods of observation
Conservation
• Mark-recapture efforts
– This is a similar grid system that
is used in estimating the tiger
populations in Sumatra
– Study by Karanth and Nichols
(1998) in India estimated the
density for tiger populations (by
capture-recapture) and their
prey base (by line transects)
Location
Tiger density
Ungulate density
Habitat type
Kanha
15.60
4.5
Tropical moist evergreen forest
Kaziranga
22.40
16.9
Alluvial grassland
Nagarahole
15.33
8.7
Tropical moist evergreen forest
Pench
9.9
11.0
Tropical moist evergreen forest
Tiger Mark-Recapture
Indochinese Tigers
» Panthera tigris corbetti
Distribution
• The majority of
Indochinese tigers are
centered in Thailand. They
are also found in
Myanmar, southern China,
Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam,
and peninsular Malaysia
• About 1,050-1,750 tigers
are left in the wild. About
60 live in zoos, mostly in
Asia, with a few in the
U.S.A.
Life History
• What do Indochinese
tigers look like?
– Look a lot like Bengal
tigers, but are a bit
smaller and darker,
with shorter, narrower
stripes
Life History
• Weight
– Male Indochinese tigers weigh about 400 pounds
– Female Indochinese tigers weigh about 250 pounds
• Length
– Male Indochinese tigers average 9 feet from head to tail
– Female Indochinese tigers are smaller, about 8 feet in
length
Food
• The Indochinese tiger
eats wild pig, wild
deer and wild cattle
Habitat
• Live in remote forests in
hilly to mountainous
terrain, much of which lies
along the borders between
countries
• Population densities in
these areas are similar to
the Sumatran tiger which
is 4 to 5 adult tigers/100
km2
Conservation
• Access to tiger habitat is often restricted,
and biologists have only recently been
granted limited permits for field surveys.
• As a result, relatively little is know about
the status of these tigers in the wild.
Conservation
• At this point, very little has been done in
Indochinese tiger management. Since the inability
to access tiger habitat, only talk has started in the
last years.
• There have been a couple of workshops held to
plan for conserving the tigers
– Masterplan workshop held at Khao Kheow Open Zoo,
Thailand, 17-20 July 1995
– Tiger GIS Workshop Royal Forest Department,
Bangkok, Thailand, 21-31 Jan. 1996
Conservation
• After the workshops the main concerns
right now are to maintain a healthy stock of
tigers in zoos, mostly in Thailand
• Deforestation, educating the people, and
controlling the poaching is the main
management implications so far
Protection in Vietnam
• Laws protecting tigers and tiger concerns
– Decree 39/CP, 1963 on regulation of hunting for wildlife. Tiger
was one of 4 limited hunting species.
– Regulation (1972) on forest protection.
– Decision 276/QD (1989) promulgating ban on hunting, trading
of tiger and 37 other species.
– Law for forest protection and development (1991).
– Decree 18/HDBT (1992) stipulates management and protection
of rare and precious species of flora and fauna. Tiger is one of 49
species and subspecies of complete ban on hunting and using.
– Decree 14/CP stipulates system of penalties for violation on
forest protection.
– In 1994 Vietnam has joint to CITES for more effective control of
wildlife trade including tiger.
– March 1995, subregional tiger workshop held in Hanoi to
establish Action plan for tiger conservation in Vietnam, Laos,
Kampuchea
Status of Captive Tigers
• 20% of the entire tiger
population is
studbook-registered:
–
–
–
–
–
475 Siberian
235 Sumatran
300 Bengal
50 South China
35 Indochinese
• These do not include tigers in circuses, private facilities,
or non-participating zoos throughout the world.
•Do not contribute to breeding programs
Tigers in Zoos
Captive Management
• Species Survival Plans
(SSP)
– Objective: Preservation of
wildlife both as species
and as components of
ecosystems
– Cooperative management
programs for the AZA
(American Zoo and
Aquarium Association)
• Reinforce, not replace,
wild populations
Gene pools…
are becoming puddles
AZA Tiger SSP
• Manage 3 of the 5
remaining subspecies
– 102 member institutions
with 277 tigers:
• 154 Siberian; goal=175
• 54 Sumatran; goal=175
• 10 Indochinese; goal=75
• Bengal; goal=75
• 59 generic tigers
• Goal: 90% genetic
diversity for the next 100200 years
• Use breeding programs in
zoos to produce genetically
diverse individuals
SSP Masterplan
• Strength of the plan lies
within the biological
database for each animal
=Studbook
– Computerized database
containing genetic,
demographic and relevant
biological information about
zoo animals worldwide
– Avoid inbreeding
– Preserve genetic diversity
– International
Breeding Programs
• Artificial insemination
– Placing sperm into the
females vagina
– Not very successful (only
1 cub)
– Tiger ovulation is induced
by mating
• In vitro fertilization
– Eggs from female and
sperm from male
– Fertilized in lab
– Injected into female
– Has produced a litter of
3 cubs
More Breeding
• “Frozen zoos”
– Sperm and eggs
preserved in nitrogen
– Not yet successful, but
promising
• Reproductive research
– Monitor ovarian cycles
– Improve assisted
reproduction
technology
– Genetic resource bank
• Naturally
– The recommended
method
– SSP recommends when,
who will be moved to
zoos for breeding
The Ethics of Captive Animals
“Circus” tigers and “zoo” tigers have diverging interests
The Ethics of Captive Animals
• Dallas zoo: remodeled
– $4.5 million
– 1 acre of habitat which
resembles a rainforest
that has recently been
logged
– Now have enough
room to implement
captive breeding (SSP)
• Private Facilities
Poaching
• Trade in tiger bone
– Major factor that
threatens survival
– Used for thousands of
years in Asian medicine
for treatment of
rheumatism
Tiger bone wine
• Some statistics from the
early 90’s
– South Korea imported
9000kg of bone over 24
years (1970-1994)
• About 750 skeletons
– Taiwan imported 12,000kg
over 10 years (1980-1990)
– China is a supplier,
processor and consumer
“Killed for a Cure”
Judy A. Mills and Peter Jackson
• 1994 TRAFFIC report
– Documented the importance of the tiger trade
– Increased national and international awareness
• November 1994
– CITES passed a resolution to prohibit domestic trade of
tiger bone
– Also called for a ban on using tiger parts in traditional
medicine
•All subspecies, except Siberian, of tigers and their derivatives were
banned from international trade under CITES in 1975.
•Siberian in 1987
Progress in Tiger Trade
• Supply
– More seizures of goods
– Prices are lower
– Major supplying markets
disappeared
• Processing
– Manufacture has stopped
in many countries
– China now substitutes
sailong (mole rat)
– Medicines that are found
are old stock
• Demand
– Availability has declined
– Consumers now support
wildlife conservation
• International Trade
– More countries join
CITES
Trade Continues
•
•
•
•
Illegal supply market still operate (Cambodia, Indonesia, Vietnam)
Processing markets label medicines incorrectly
Domestic retail trade in Japan, China, Vietnam, Thailand, Indonesia
International trade through “an army of ants”= large number of
people smuggling small volumes of goods
What to do
• Improved enforcement
on trade bans,
especially international
• Increase penalties for
poaching
• Raise conservation
awareness
• More research to help
distinguish between
real and fake tiger parts
and products
• Adopt a tiger
– $2000
• Eviction of humans
from tiger habitat
• Conservation
Education
Decline Over Last 100 Years