Industrialization and
Ideology
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The Industrial Revolution
1750-1850

A process which led to gradual, longterm growth rates over a sustained
period of time.
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Change in the Industrial
Revolution can be seen in the
following:
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Structural/Institutional Changes
Technology
Energy – fossil fuels
Organization – the factory and the corporation
Labor – wage-based, division of labor
Global Dimension – migration/immigration
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Why is England the first to industrialize?
Contributing Conditions:
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Colonies – “ghost acres” and raw materials
Agricultural changes – greater productivity (Ex.,
Jethro Tull, agronomist) – population growth
Mobile labor supply
Capital available
Mindset of the gentry/landowning/ middle classes
– entrepreneurship
Political stability – Constitutional Monarchy
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Andrew Carnegie’s Life
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Did Andrew work in Scotland? Did his
mother?
How did technology affect the Carnegie
family in Scotland? In America?
What is the role of Andrew’s mother?
How do they get to Pittsburgh?
How do Pittsburgh and Coketown compare?
Was Andrew’s father a “victim” of the
Industrial Revolution?
Are there similarities in the story with
America today ?
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Problems with early industrialization
“the Industrial Revolution has created the
ugliest world that humans have ever
known.”
Industrialization
promoted rapid
Urbanization
By 1800, 20%
of British people
lived in cities of
10,000 or more.
By 1900s, 75%.
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By the end of the 19th century, a new
“job” for children…
By the way, industrialization helps explain why you are sitting here
at BCC …
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New Sources of Power
Cotton Imports to UK

Steam Engine
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400
350
300
250
Lbs.
200
(mill.)
150
100
50
0
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1760
James Watt (1736-1819)
Coal fired
Applied to rotary engine,
multiple applications
1760: 2.5 million pounds
of raw cotton imported
1787: 22 million
1840: 360 million
1840
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Population Growth (millions)
400
350
300
250
Europe
Americas
200
150
100
50
0
1700
1800
1900
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Overview: Creation of New Classes
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The Industrial Middle Class - Bourgeoisie
Urban Proletariat – Factory workers
Shift in political power to the Bourgeoisie
Inspiration for new political systems—
Liberalism (Bourgeois Middle classes) and its
competitor, Marxian Socialism.
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Industrial Europe ca. 1850
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The Question of Equality:
“the myth that ANYONE can make it
is confused with the notion that
EVERYONE can make it.”
Japanese CEO-average Japanese worker = 10X
US CEO – average American worker = 531X
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Stats on Inequality:
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Richest 1% of Americans held 32% of nation’s
wealth in 2001.
Income inequality in America has increased-from
1980-2005, income for white men has declined by
20%.
Between 1970’s and today, the % of income of the
middle class rose by 15%, the upper middle class,
by 23%, and of wealth, 63% = growing income
inequality.
Why hasn’t economic growth led to greater
equality?
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Reactions to early industrialization

Union movements
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Socialist movements
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Marxism
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Marx and Engels

“The history of all hitherto
existing society is the history of
class struggles. Freeman and
slave, patrician and plebian, lord
and serf, guild-mastery and
journeyman, in a word, oppressor
and oppressed, stood in constant
opposition to one another, carried
on an uninterrupted, now hidden,
now open fight, a fight that each
time ended, either in a
revolutionary reconstitution of
society at large, or in the common
ruin or the contending classes…”
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Economic consequences of industrialization

Large quantities of cheaper
products…

But consuming them becomes
imperative

Global division of labor:


Industrialized countries
Suppliers of raw materials
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Social consequences of industrialization

New social classes
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New experience of work
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New sense of space

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Emergence of “private” and
“public” realms  family, gender
implications
New sense of time


Modern Times, Charlie Chaplin
Agricultural time vs. factory time
“Time is money”
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Implications: Slave Labor

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Cheap cotton from American south
Benefit of transatlantic slave trade
Irony: early British abolitionism, yet profit motive
retained
Note: All major English capitalists invested in the slave-sugar
trade and other trade ventures that relied on colonies and slavery,
with huge returns on their investments. At the same time, many
also championed the abolition of slavery.
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Rail Transport
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1804 first steam-powered locomotive
Capacity: Ten tons + 70 passengers @ 5 mph
The Rocket from Liverpool to Manchester (1830),
16 mph
Ripple effect on industrialization
Engineering and architecture
Note: Until the railroad it was impossible to have a unified market for easy
transport of goods. Humans lived in a 4 mile an hour world. But with trains
like the Rocket, the price of goods plummeted, the transport of goods was
quicker and more reliable. Thus, a national market was born.
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The Industrial Middle Class: The
Bourgeoisie
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New class, evolved from guild merchants in
cities
“bourgeoisie”
From Capitalists (upper middle class) to
shopkeepers (lower middle class)
Begin to eclipse power and status of agrarian
landed classes
Note: They project an image of “respectability,” “clean collars,”
professionals, rationalism, pious, frugal and hard-working, family men,
sober, civic-minded, men of property, moral.
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Bourgeoisie Liberalism: The ideology
of the Middle Classes
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Based on Enlightenment ideas:
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Laissez-faire economics
Popular sovereignty – (not democracy) men of
property should rule, but power should come from
them.
Constitutionalism – sharing power
Rights and freedoms – press, assembly, religion,
property.
Individualism and free thought.
Poverty – new definition—character over birth.

“If you’re poor it’s because of your own failure—sink or
swim”
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The Proletariat
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Blue-collar factory workers
Tremendous growth in numbers as
industrialization expands.
Worked in ecologically disastrous conditions for
long hours.
Regarded as “dangerous, the mob, irrational,
dirty, lazy, drunkards, immoral, “breeders,” not
religious or civic-minded, criminals.
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Overview: Unexpected Impact of the
Industrial Revolution

Genesis of an environmental catastrophe
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Intellectual origins of human domination over
natural resources
Unforeseen toxins, occupational hazards
Reliance on non-renewable fossil fuels.
Social ills
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Landless proletariat
Migrating work forces
Definition of poverty changed: individual failure
rather than the norm; poverty = deviance.
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Spread of Industrialization
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Spread throughout Europe—France, Germany,
Russia, America and Japan by the end of the 19th
century.
Development of technical schools for engineers,
architects, etc.
Government support for large public works
projects (canals, rail system).
Huge financial institutions supporting the global
demands of industrialization.
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Big Business: New Organizations as
Industrialism spreads.
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Large factories require start-up capital
Corporations formed to share risk, maximize
profits
Britain and France lay foundations for modern
corporation, 1850-1860s
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Private business owned by hundreds, thousands or
even millions of stockholders
Investors get dividends if profitable, lose only
investments in case of bankruptcy
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Industrialization in the United States
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1800 US agrarian
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Population 5 million
No city larger than 100,000
6/7 Americans farmers
1860 US industrializing
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Population 30 million
Nine cities 100K +
½ Americans farmers
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Mass Production

Eli Whitney (U.S., 1765-1825) invents cotton gin
(1793), also technique of using machine tools to
make interchangeable parts for firearms

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
“the American system”
Applied to wide variety of machines
Henry Ford, 1913, develops assembly line
approach


Complete automobile chassis every 93 minutes
Previously: 728 minutes
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Distribution of Wealth in the U.S.
80
70
60
Percentage 50
of Total US 40
Weath
30
20
10
0
Richest 10
Other 90
1800
1860
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Mature Industrialism at the end of the
19th century. Monopolies, Trusts, and
Cartels
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Large corporations form blocs to drive out
competition, keep prices high

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
John D. Rockefeller controls almost all oil drilling,
processing, refining, marketing in U.S.
German IG Farben controls 90% of chemical
production
Governments often slow to control monopolies
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The Demographic Transition
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Industrialization results in marked decline of
both fertility and mortality by the end of the
19th c.e.
Costs of living increase in industrial societies
Urbanization proceeds dramatically


1800: only 20% of Britons live in towns with
population over 10,000
1900: 75% of Britons live in urban environments
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Contraception
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Ancient and medieval methods:
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Egypt: crocodile dung depository
Asia: oral contraceptives (mercury, arsenic)
Elsewhere: beeswax, oil paper diaphragms
Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) predicts
overpopulation crisis, advocates “moral restraint”
Condoms invented in England

Made from animal intestines in 17th century, latex in
19th century
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Transcontinental Migrations

19th-early 20th centuries, rapid population growth
drives Europeans to Americas
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50 million cross Atlantic
Britons to avoid urban slums, Irish to avoid potato
famines of 1840s, Jews to abandon Tsarist persecution
United States favored destination
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Women in the Workforce
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Agricultural, cottage industry work involved women:
natural transition
But as industrialization progresses, development of
men as prime breadwinners, women in private sphere,
the “Angel of the Hearth” to care for the home.
Double burden: women expected to maintain home as
well as work in industry, if not middle class.
Related to child labor: as children’s labor restricted
by law, and schools created, lack of day care facilities.
Women worked as the demands of the family
required.
“Women live like bats or owls, labor like beasts and die like worms.”
Duchess of Newcastle, 17th century.
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Child Labor

Easily exploited
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Advantages of size
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Low wages: 1/6 to 1/3 of adult male wages
High discipline
Coal tunnels
Gathering loose cotton under machinery
Cotton industry, 1838: children 29% of workforce
Factory Act of 1833: 9 years minimum working age
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The Socialist Challenge to Capitalism
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Socialism first used in context of Utopian
Socialists Charles Fourier (1772-1837) and
Robert Owen (1771-1858) (The Phalanx, one of
the agricultural cooperatives started in France
but spreading to the U.S. existed for about 20
years and gave its name to Phalanx Road.
Opposed competition of market system
Attempted to create small model communities
Inspirational for larger social units
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What all Socialists Believed
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Optimists – believed society could be reformed,
including the economic system.
Social activists-as individuals and that government
should guarantee basic needs.
Cooperative—Humans were cooperative by nature,
but society forced them to compete.
Property was the key to equitable distribution of
resources.
Economic Democracy – popular sovereignty in the
economic sphere.
Industrialism is good.
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Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich
Engels (1820-1895): Marxian Socialism
“Scientific”

Two major classes, always in conflict:
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Capitalists, who control means of production
Proletariat, wageworkers who sell labor
Exploitative nature of capitalist system
Religion: “opiate of the masses”
Argued for an overthrow of capitalists in favor of a
“dictatorship of the proletariat”
Economic Determinism – your economic situation
influences everything you do, think, eat, say, believe.
Marx’s chief contribution: A society cannot be
understood without an analysis of its economic system.
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Social Reform and Trade Unions

Socialism had major impact on 19th century reformers
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Reduced property requirements for male suffrage
Addressed issues of medical insurance, unemployment
compensation, retirement benefits
Trade unions form for collective bargaining

Strikes to address workers’ concerns

Evolutionary Socialism: workers and their political
representatives get the right to vote by the end of the 19th
century and are elected to office to change existing wrongs.
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ARE PATRIOTISM AND
NATIONALISM THE SAME?
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“By patriotism, I mean devotion to a particular
place and a particular way of life, which one
believes to be the best in the world but has no
wish to force on other people.”
“Patriotism is of its nature defensive, both
militarily and culturally.”
“Nationalism, on the other hand, is inseparable
from the desire for power.”

George Orwell, 1945.
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A Definition of Nationalism
“Nationalism, of course, is intrinsically absurd. Why
should the accident—fortune or misfortune—of birth
as an American, Albanian, Scott, or Fiji Islander
impose loyalties that dominate an individual life and
structure a society so as to place it in formal conflict
with others? In the past there were local loyalties to
place and clan or tribe, obligations to lord or landlord,
dynastic or territorial wars, but primary loyalties
were to God or God-king, possibly to emperor, to a
civilization as such. There was no nation.
William Pfaff
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Nations and Nationalism
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“Nation” a type of community, especially prominent in
19th century
Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities
Usually based on shared language, customs, values,
historical experience



Sometimes common religion
Idea of nation has immediate relationship with
political boundaries
Origins with the French Revolution and Napoleon’s
armies spread it throughout Europe.
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Types of Nationalism
“Tell me where you’re from and I’ll tell
you who you are.”

Cultural nationalism = ethnic identity=linked with the
Romantic literary movement, with its focus on the
unique ethnic makeup of each people.



Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the Volk
(“people”)
Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist: “spirit
of the people”
Political nationalism = political identity



Movement for political independence of nation from other
authorities – “Each nationality should have its own political
house.”
Unification of national lands
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”
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The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

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Meeting after defeat of Napoleon
Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 17731859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s
empire
Established balance of power
Worked to suppress development of nationalism
among multi-national empires like the Austrian
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National Rebellions

Greeks in Balkan peninsula seek independence
from Ottoman Turks, 1821

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With European help, Greece achieves independence in
1830
Rebellions all over Europe, especially in 1848



Rebels take Vienna, Metternich resigns and flees
But rebellions put down by 1849
Cultural Nationalism fails to unite
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Unification of Italy and Germany

Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of
regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical states
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Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous jurisdictions
Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) and Giuseppe
Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under King Vitttore
Emmanuele II
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) advances Realpolitik
(“the politics of reality”), uses wars with neighbors to
unify Germany
Second Reich proclaimed in 1871 (Holy Roman
Empire the first), King Wilhelm I named Emperor
59
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Unification of Germany and Italy
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Darwin: Biological Evolution and
Natural Selection

Traditional beliefs:



Idea of evolution not new
Geology—age of earth believed to be no more than
4000 years old, but scientists like Lyell suggest
erosion and natural forces suggested earth far, far
older.
All species created by God as they presently existed.
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Darwin’s Ideas: Origin of Species
(1859) and The Descent of Man (1871)

Natural Selection
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Variations exist within species.
Variations are inherited.
Nature is a scene of struggle for resources.
Species best able to survive (through adaptation) will survive
this struggle.
Process of natural selection operates randomly, without God’s
intervention.
Darwin did not know how natural selection took place (Mendel’s
genetic research would later provide the answer)
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Social Darwinism


Sociologists like Herbert Spencer applied Darwin’s ideas
to human societies.
Spencer coined the term, “survival of the fittest”-but what
constitutes “the fittest” in humans?
“The fiercely competitive environments is cruel for weak
individuals but promotes the overall good of the species
by strengthening the fittest and stimulates overall
enterprise; too much government holds back the strong
and gives unnatural advantages to the weak. “
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Racism


Theories of Race developed by anthropologists.
“Scientific” Racism developed


Count Joseph Arthur de Gobineau (1816-1882)
Combines with theories of Charles Darwin (18091882) to form pernicious doctrine of Social
Darwinism
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Global Ramifications of Industrialism

Global division of labor




Rural societies that produce raw materials
Urban societies that produce manufactured goods
Uneven economic development – creation of
rich-poor world.
Developing export dependencies of Latin
America, sub-Saharan Africa, south and southeast Asia

Low wages, small domestic markets
Note: Industrialism and Nationalism will be a powerful combination
that will lead to further inequities and conflict throughout the world,
even as the benefits of industrialism are spread.
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