ARISTOTLE: Background
PLATO: The forms [patterns or ideals] are not this
world and can only be known through a process
of education –
 Thus morality is based on the highest
knowledge available only to a few.
ARISTOTLE: The “forms” [or patterns] that enable
us to understand objects don’t exist apart from
particular objects.
 Thus morality is not based on a "good"
independent of experience, but on experience
itself.
ARISTOTLE: What He Asks
Aristotle asks: What do people desire?
He says we desire an end that is: selfsufficient, final, attainable
 According to Aristotle this end can only be
HAPPINESS.
 And happiness can only be explained in
terms of our capacity for reason.
How ARISTOTLE Classifies Knowledge
& Human Activities
Theoretical Sciences -- include Metaphysics,
Physics and Mathematics
Productive /Practical Sciences -- are those
where reason serves human beings.
 Productive Sciences -- involve "know-how" and
cover many crafts, including art.
 Practical Science or ETHICS -- Here humans
are AGENTS rather than producers.
 The "end" of the “Practical Science is not a
product, but the living of a certain kind of life.
Aristotle’s Starting Assumptions
Every activity has its proper end at which it aims.
["end in itself"]
Politics is the "master art" -- why? Who should
practice it? Contemporary relevance?
Different ”Sciences" will have different levels of
precision.
 Ethics, dealing with opinions, will not have the
same kind of precision as mathematics.
 The best judge of the appropriate precision is a
person educated in that subject.
Happiness is the aim
of Human Existence
Aristotle thought that there was agreement
among people that the ultimate human good
is happiness.
Why? [what is Aristotle assuming about human
interests?
 It is FINAL [is that for which everything else
is done]
 It is SELF-SUFFICIENT [by itself it makes life
desirable]
 It is ACHIEVABLE BY ACTION [attainable]
Aristotle’s Definition of Happiness
The "function of man" is an activity of the
soul that follows a rational principle.
Aristotle’s definition relies on his analysis of the
soul and the Greek definition of virtue


VIRTUE is the appropriate excellence for an
activity -- What that activity aims at. [ virtue
= being good at ____ for the Greeks]
Thus HAPPINESS [as the goal or
"excellence" of human life] is "activity of the
soul in accord with virtue"
Reason, the Human Soul and Virtue
The human soul has two elements.
1. Rational [grasps a rule or principle]
2. Irrational
The rational part has two functions

The exercise of reason for its own sake.

The control of the irrational part
2 kinds of virtue parallel the functions of reason.

Intellectual Virtues: consist of instruction &
knowledge - the "virtues of intellect"

Moral Virtues: consist of practical actions &
habits of choice. - the "virtues of character"
Aristotle argues that Virtue is a “State of
Character” involving the "Mean"
According to Aristotle the human personality has
three elements:
 Passions
 Faculties
 States of character.
The passions and faculties [abilities] are not
blameworthy or praiseworthy in themselves
Thus Virtue must be a state of character.
 Virtue makes a man good
 Virtue makes him do his own work well.
Aristotle argues that Virtue is a “State of
Character” involving the "Mean"


Every activity has an excess and a defect.

The master of an art avoids the extremes

BUT the "mean" or balance is relative to
each of us
In summary: virtue is a state of character,
lying in a mean relative to us, which is
determined by a rational principle.
Examples of Virtues and the "Mean"
Excess
Mean
Defect
rashness
vanity
self-indulgence
courage
cowardliness
proper pride undue humility
temperance 'insensible'
The Two Kinds of Intellectual Virtue
Practical Wisdom: [deals with variable things].
Here the reasoning must be true and the desire
right if the choice is to be good
Philosophical Wisdom: [deals with invariable
things] Contemplative in nature. Not practical
nor productive.
The origin of Moral Action is in CHOICE.
 Choice cannot exist without reason or
intellect, or without a moral state of character.
 Good action cannot exist without intellect and
character.
Aristotle believes that Philosophic
Wisdom is superior because
The activity of reason offers pleasures that
are:
 Pure and enduring
 Self-sufficient.
 Are leisurely.
..
Question:
Is this a life that humans can aspire to?
The Ethics of Character
The example of Le Chambon:
 Their goodness is not Kantian or utilitarian. It
came from the kind of people they were.
For Aristotle the question isn’t “How should I act?”,
but “What kind of a person should I be?”


This is a focus on CHARACTER rather than
ACTION
Aristotle argues that in ethics we need good
PERSONS as well as good ACTIONS
The Clash between Duty & Inclination
We can understand Aristotle as an attempt to
reconcile duty & inclination/reason & emotion
 This is unlike Kant where the divide between
reason & emotion is a key element of his
ethical theory.
Aristotle makes a distinction between a
temperate & a continent person.
 The temperate person does what is right
because they WANT to [from the heart]
 The continent person does what is right, but
doesn’t necessarily want to. [from the head]
Kant & Utilitarianism
Both Kant’s ethics and Utilitarianism
maintain the split between head & heart.
For KANT:
 The moral person is close to the “continent”
person.
UTILITARIANISM:
 Motives aren’t a factor in the “hedonic
calculus.”
 And everyone’s emotions count equally.
 If anything OUR emotions are given less
weight.
TEXT: The Structure of Virtues
IAccording to Aristotle virtue is




a habit or disposition of the soul [not
inborn, but acquired]
involving both feeling and action [not
only action, but certain kinds of feelings]
to seek the mean in all things relative to
us
where the mean is defined through
reason as the prudent man would
define it. [this reflects the need for both
principles and persons]
TEXT: Aristotle on Virtue II

In Aristotle’s discussion of virtue the emphasis
is on CHARACTER [as a result of habits of
behavior and perception], rather than
individual actions
He asks what life with or without a certain
virtue‘s mean, excess or defect would be like?
Two Virtues: Courage & Compassion
COURAGE: A lack of courage can interfere
with reaching our goals.
 Courage rests on “rightly ordering” our
fears & an accurate assessment of risk
as well as “proper confidence.”
Two Virtues: Courage & Compassion
COMPASSION: Compassion is part of
recognizing the suffering of others as
suffering.
Compassion always involves the desire to do
something. [whether possible or not]
Compassion involves “moral imagination”
 Compassion takes us beyond the rules.
 Yet we still need good judgment.
Compassion implies moral equality/pity implies
inequality.
The Virtue of “Self-Love”
Love, whether of self or other, wants to see the
object of the love flourish.
 Self-love involves both feelings and behaving/
acting towards ourselves in certain ways as well
as self-knowledge
 Love is not unconditionally positive -- it involves
doing what you need to do to flourish.
The excess [arrogance, conceit etc.] and
deficiency [self-deprecation, self-effacing etc…]
interfere with your flourishing.
 Proper self-love is very important in friendship.
How does “Practical Wisdom” work?
Practical Wisdom involves “the reflective and
affective application of a general disposition to
right action of some kind.” [huh?]
Translation:
A particular virtue [that is part of your moral
character] and your conception of the “good
life” come together in a certain situation
guiding you to form a judgment [practical
wisdom] about what you should do.
In Closing …
Aristotle says you can’t have one virtue without
the others - there is a reciprocity.
 This is because virtues are connected both
with practical wisdom and with human
flourishing.
Finally: An ethics of character helps other
moral theories apply rules sensitively and,
through practical wisdom, is able to balance
the competing claims of utility & rights etc.