Theory: Human Development Theory
Theorist: Dr. Erik H. Erikson
Short Biography of Theorist:
Erik Erikson was born in Frankfurt, Germany to Danish parents in 1902. He was the
child of an extramarital affair and was raised by his single parent Mother until he was three years
of age. When his mother married again to a pediatrician, Dr. Homburger, they kept from Erikson
the truth of his biological father. Erikson began to find his calling at the age of 25 when he
accepted an invitation to teach children in a school started in Vienne by Anna Freud and Dorothy
Burlingham. When he wasn’t teaching he studied child psychoanalysis with Anna Freud and
others (Crane 2000, p. 272).
Erikson moved to the United States in 1933 when the rise of Hitler forced him and his
wife to leave Europe. They settled in Boston and he became the city’s first child analyst. After a
few years in Boston Erikson took a position at Yale, followed by work at the University of
California where he worked until his resignation in 1949 during the McCarthy era. In 1960 after
work at the Austin Riggs Center in Stockbridge, Massachusetts he was given a professorship at
Harvard even though he had never earned a formal college degree. Erikson wrote his most
important work Childhood and Society in 1950 that maps out his eight stages of life and
illustrates how these stages are played out in different ways and in different cultures (p. 272).
Description of Theory:
Erikson’s theory of human development encompasses eight life stages. During each
stage Erikson saw a conflict arise, an important event and how the outcome of each stage
affected growth into the next stage. Stage one is the oral-sensory stage which develops from
birth through the first year of age. The conflict in this stage is described as trust vs. mistrust,
with the important event being feeding. According to Erikson, the infant will develop a sense of
trust only if the parent or caregiver is responsive and consistent with the basic needs being meet.
The need for care and food must be met with regularity. The infant must first form a trusting
relationship with the parent or caregiver, failure results in a sense of mistrust (p. 273).
Stage two is the muscular-anal stage which develops in early childhood from ages 2
through 3. This conflict is autonomy vs. shame and doubt, with the important event being toilet
training. Erikson theorized that children need to develop a sense of control over physical skills
and a sense of independence. Success leads to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of
shame and doubt (p. 274).
Stage three is the locomotor stage which develops between the ages of three and six. The
conflict during this time is initiative vs. guilt, with the important event being gaining
independence. A child will develop a sense of independence and exploration as they take more
initiative and begin to exert some power and control of situations. As the child exerts too much
power and control they meet with disapproval that leads to feelings of guilt (p. 274).
Stage four is the latency stage which develops between the ages of six and 12. The
conflict is industry vs. inferiority, with the important event being school and education. As the
child grows and develops through peer interaction outside the home during school a sense of
pleasure comes from being productive and building a larger social group. A sense of failure
occurs when the transition from home to school is not positive and it will lead to the child feeling
inferiority when compared to others of their age group (p. 275).
Stage five is adolescence which develops between the ages of 12 and 18. The conflict is
identity vs. role confusion, the important event occurs around social/peer relationships. As the
child becomes a teenager they want to answer the question of who they are and what they believe
to be true. This stage builds on the social growth that has occurred in the two previous stages.
Success is staying true to who you are as a teenager during this stage while failure can be seen in
a confusion of roles and a weak sense of self (p. 276).
Stage six is young adulthood which develops between the ages of 19 to 40. The conflict
is intimacy vs. isolation, the important event during this stage is intimate relationships. This
stage relies on the person understanding their own sense of self and identity. There is a need to
form intimate relationships with other people by relating in a personal way to another individual.
Without a sense of self and the ability to relate to another person a feeling of isolation and
loneliness can overcome the individual (p. 277).
Stage seven is middle adulthood which develops between the ages of 40 and 65. The
conflict is generativity vs. stagnation; the important events are work and parenting. Adults need
to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating a positive
change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment,
while failure results in stagnation and a shallow involvement in the world (p. 278).
Stage eight is late adulthood/maturity which is characterized between the ages of 65 to
death. The conflict is integrity vs. despair; the important events are reflection on and acceptance
of life. Older adults need to look back on their lives with a sense of accomplishment and
acceptance which leads to a sense of integrity and helps to cope with death. Without this
integrity an older adult can feel bitterness and regret as they fear death (p. 280).
Theory Measurement/Instrumentation:
Erikson’s integral theory has not been researched empirically very much. There are two
reasons for this lack. First, researching Erikson’s theory requires a complex and very costly
apparatus. Investigators need longitudinal studies that trace people from birth to death, so that
each phase can be measured and followed. This is the only way to investigate whether each
phase does indeed influence development. Due to the expense of such research it is probable
that an assumption can be made to the lack of this empirical research. Second, some research
has been inspired by Erikson’s theory, however, they have tended to focus primarily on phase 5,
identity formation, because reliable empirical instruments have been developed to chart identity
formation not specifically related to Erikson’s (Meeus, 1996, p. 88).
Report prepared by: Barbara A. Abercrombie
References:
Crane, William C., Theories of Development: Concepts and Applications, 2000, Prentice
Hall, Upper Saddle River, N.J., 4th edition.
Hurrelmann, Klaus & Hamilton, Stephen F., Social Problems and Social Contexts in
Adolescents 1996, Aldine De Gruyter, New York: Chapter 4, Meeus, Wim; Toward a
Psychosocial Analysis of Adolescent Identity: An evaluation of the Epigenetic Theory (Erikson)
and the Identity Status Model (Marcia).