WHAT WILL YOU KNOW?
How does a theory differ from a fact?
In what ways did Erikson disagree with his mentor, Freud?
Why do children often copy their parents’ habits and prejudices?
Do people sometimes act on thoughts that are not true?
Does what a child learns depend on what culture he or she
experiences?
Do all humans strive for the same goals?
Why is it better to use several theories to understand human
development rather than just one?
What Theories Do
Developmental theory
Systematic statement of principles and
generalizations
Framework for understanding how and why people
change as they grow older
What Theories Do
Theories produce hypotheses.
Theories generate discoveries.
Theories offer practical guidance.
What Theories Do
Facts and norms
• Norms: Average, or
typical, standard of
behavior or
accomplishment
Backpacks or Bouquets?
Children worldwide are nervous on the
first day of school, but their coping
reflects implicit cultural theories.
Kindergartener Madelyn Ricker in
Georgia shows her new backpack to her
teacher, and elementary school children
in Russia bring flowers to their teachers.
Theories
Freud ‘s psychoanalytic
theory
Constructed elaborate,
multifaceted theory
Proposed development in first
six years occurs in three
psychosexual stages
characterized by sexual
interest and pleasure arising
from body part
Each stage includes its own
struggle.
Theories
Psychoanalytic theory
Epigenetic Theory
• Stresses that genes and
biological impulses are
powerfully influenced by the
social environment
Erik Erikson (1902–1994)
• Described eight developmental
stages, each characterized by a
challenging developmental crisis
• Proposed five psychosocial
stages build on Freud's theory,
but added three adult stages
If Erikson had published his theory
at age 73 (when this photograph
was taken) instead of in his 40s,
would he still have described his life
as a series of crises?
Theories
Behaviorism
Conditioning
• Proposes that learning takes place through
processes by which responses become linked to
particular stimuli
Learning theory
• Focuses on observable behavior
• Describes the laws and processes by which
behavior is learned
Theories
Behaviorism
• Argued that scientists
should examine only what
they could observe and
measure
• Proposed anything can be
learned with focus on
behavior
• No specific stages
proposed
John Watson (1878-1958)
• American psychologist
• One of earliest proponent
of behaviorism and learning
theory
John Watson
Theories
Behaviorism
Classical conditioning
• Demonstrates that behaviors
can be learned by making an
association between an
environmental stimulus and a
naturally occurring stimulus
• Also called respondent
conditioning
Pavlov (1849-1936)
• Received the Nobel Prize in
1904 for his digestive processes
research.
• Resulted in discovery of
classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Theories
Behaviorism
Operant conditioning
• Proposes that reinforcement or
punishment may be used to either
increase or decrease the
probability that a behavior will
occur again in the future
• Also called instrumental
conditioning
Skinner (1904-1990)
• Agreed with Watson that
psychology should focus on the
scientific study of behavior
• Was best known for experiments
with rats, pigeons and his own
daughter
Skinner applied his knowledge to human
behavior. For his daughter, he designed a
glass-enclosed crib in which temperature,
humidity, and perceptual stimulation could
be controlled to make her time in the crib
enjoyable and educational.
Theories
Social learning theory
Refers to extension of
behaviorism that emphasizes
that other people influence
each person's behavior
What kind of learning do you see
in this image?
Proposes that even without
specific reinforcement, every
individual learns many things
through observation and
imitation of other people
(modeling)
Involves sense of self-efficacy
Theories
Type of Learning
Learning Process
Result
• Classical
Conditioning
• Learning occurs
through
association.
• Neutral stimulus
becomes
conditioned response.
• Operant
Conditioning
• Learning occurs
through
reinforcement and
punishment.
• Weak or rare
responses become
strong, frequent
responses—or,
with punishment,
become extinct.
• Social Learning
• Learning occurs
through
modeling what others
do.
• Observed behaviors
become
copied behaviors.
Theories
Cognitive theory
Proposes thoughts and
expectations profoundly affect
actions, attitudes, beliefs and
assumption
Focuses on changes in how
people think over time
Jean Piaget (1896–1980)
Would You Talk to This Man?
Children loved talking to Jean
Piaget, and he learned by listening
carefully—especially to their
incorrect explanations, which no
one had paid much attention to
before.
Maintained that cognitive
development occurs in four major
age-related periods, or stages
Intellectual advancement occurs
lifelong because humans seek
cognitive equilibrium
Piaget
Piaget used scientific observations to form
the central thesis of his theory and his
stages of children’s cognitive development.
Sensorimotor
Preoperational
Concrete operational
Formal operational
Piaget
Cognitive theory
Assimilation
• Experiences are interpreted to fit into, or assimilate with,
old ideas
Accommodation
• Old ideas are restructured to include, or accommodate,
new experiences
How to Think About Flowers
(a)
A person’s stage of cognitive growth influences
how he or she thinks about everything,
including flowers.
(b)
Can you identify the Piagetian stage at which
each person is thinking about flowers?
(c)
Theories
Information processing theory
Represents newer version of cognitive theory
Compares human thinking processes, by analogy,
to computer analysis of data, including sensory
input, connections, stored memories, and output
Piaget and Neuroscience
Details of brain scans require interpretation from neurologists, but
even the novice can see that adults who have been diagnosed with
ADHD (second line of images) reacted differently in this experiment
when they were required to push a button only if certain letters
appeared on a screen.
Newer Versions of Cognitive Theory
Are multicultural and multidisciplinary
Propose human development results from
dynamic interaction between developing
person and surrounding society
View culture as integral to development
every day through the social context
Sociocultural theory
Proposes thoughts and human
development results from the
dynamic interaction between
developing persons and their
surrounding society
Focuses on culture as integral to a
person’s development
Lev Vygotsky (18961934)
Describes interaction between
culture and education
Developed concepts of
apprenticeship in thinking and
guided participation
Vygotsky
Zone of proximal
development
• Skills, knowledge, and
concepts that learner is
close to acquiring but
cannot master without
help
Process of joint
construction
• New knowledge obtained
through mentoring
The intellectual excitement of that zone is
the origin of the joy that both instruction
and study can bring.
Taking culture into account
Sociocultural perspective
• Influences inclusion of culture into contemporary
research
• Sheds new light on cultural differences in many areas,
including attachment, gender, and ethnic prejudice
Humanism
Stresses the potential of all human
beings for good and the belief that
all people have the same basic
needs, regardless of culture, gender
Hope and Laughter
Maslow believed in the human spirit
and that it could overcome
oppression and reach selfactualization, where faith, hope, and
humor abound.
Abraham Maslow
(1908–1970)
One of founders of humanism
Arranged shared human needs in
hierarchy
Contended that everyone must
satisfy each lower level before
moving higher
Moving Up, Not Looking Back
Newer Theories
Evolutionary theory
Integrates explanations for many issues in
human development
Suggests humans have two long-standing
biologically based drives: survival and
reproduction
Proposes concept of selective adaptation
Suggests genetic variations are particularly
beneficial when the environment changes
benefits humanity as a whole
What Theories Contribute
Psychoanalytic theories
Behaviorism
Cognitive theories
Sociocultural theories
Universal theories
Can you identify the contributions of each of the
above theories?
What Theories Contribute
Eclectic approach
Held by most developmentalists
Occurs when aspects of each of the various
theories of development are selectively applied,
rather than adhering exclusively to one theory
Helps guard against bias and facilitates openminded to alternative explanations for complexity
of human life