Literature and Composition
End-Of-Course Test Study Guide
Domain I: Reading
Literary Terms:
1. genre (page 19): a category of composition. Each genre has a particular style, form, and
content.
a. fiction (pages 19 & 20): A category of composition (writing) that includes stories or
works that are not real. Some fiction works can be loosely based in reality, but are still constructs
of the author’s imagination. Fictional works include adventure stories (“The Most Dangerous
Game” by Richard Connell), historical fiction (To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee), mysteries
(“The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allen Poe), realistic fiction (“The Scarlet Ibis” by James
Hurst), allegories (Anthem by Ayn Rand), parodies (Scary Movie), satire (Family Guy), and
graphic novels (Bones, Persepolis, Maus).
b. drama (pages 19 & 24) – a literary genre that is intended to be performed on a stage by actors.
The work has one or multi-act plays. This work has dialogue, or speaking parts for the
characters.
1. Tragedy (page 24): – A work of literature, especially a play, that results in catastrophe for the
main character. Example: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare.
2. Comedy (page 24): -- A literary work, especially a play, that has a happy ending (The Mask,
Young Frankenstein, Kung Fu Panda. Shakespearean Comedy: A Midsummer Night’s Dream,
The Two Gentlemen of Verona, The Comedy of Errors, The Merchant of Venice, Twelfth Night,
The Taming of the Shrew (Ten Things I Hate About You),As You Like It, etc.,) .
3. Political Drama (page 24): A literary work with a political component advocating a certain
point of view or describing a political event. A literary work performed by actors on a stage that
entails politicians, legal situations, historical situations, or other political or leading forces in a
culture or country that affect the lives of people (Michael Moore’s Fahrenheit 911, The
Candidate, Bob Roberts).
4. Modern Drama (page 24) – like all modern literature, explores themes of alienation and
disconnectedness. Modern drama, which became popular in the early 1900s, strives to let the
audience feel as if it is peering in on real-life situations and experiencing real-life emotions
(Pygmalion by Bernard Shaw is an example of modernist theater).
5. Conventions or Dramatic Conventions (page 24) -- are rules in which the actors and
audience engage during a play. Some conventions relate to how the audience and the actors
interact. For example, the audience knows to become quiet when the lights dim.
c. Poetry (pages 19 & 25): is a literary genre that may encompass a variety of metered or
rhythmically measured lines and is intended to evoke an emotional experience in the reader.
Poetry includes narrative poems, lyric poems, free-verse poems, sonnets, odes, ballads, and
epics.
1. Sound Devices make poetry sound better in your mind. These sound devices include the
following:
Alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of one initial sound in more than one word. Usually,
the repeated sound is of a consonant. “Wild and woolly” and “hale and hearty” are examples.
Rhyme scheme. The rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes in a poem. Each new rhyme in a
stanza is represented by a different letter of the alphabet. For example, in a four-line poem in
which every other line rhymes, the rhyme scheme is abab. In a six-line poem with every two
lines rhyming, the rhyme scheme is aabbcc.
2. Fixed Form is what most people consider typical poetry: it’s written in traditional verse and
generally rhymes. Verse is writing that indicates the technical requirements of meter and rhythm
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are present. Some fixed form poems have specific requirements on length, rhyme scheme, and
number of syllables. A sonnet, for example, is a 14-line rhymed poem.
3. Free Form or free verse, poetry follows no specific guidelines about rhyme, meter, or length.
Free form often tries to capture the cadence of regular speech. Some stanzas may rhyme but not
in a regular scheme.
4. Narrative Poems: the main purpose of a narrative poem is to tell a story.
5. Lyric poetry expresses a person’s thoughts or feelings. Elegies, odes, and sonnets are types of
lyric poems.
d. Nonfiction is a genre based on fact. Essays, editorials, and biographies are works of
nonfiction. Types of writings which are considered nonfiction include exposition, argument, and
functional text in the form of personal essays, speeches, opinion pieces, essays about art or
literature, biographies, memoirs, journalism, and historical, scientific, technical, or economic
accounts (including digital sources) written for a broad audience.
c. Fiction is a literary genre based on imagination and not necessarily on fact. Short stories and
novels are examples.
2. Character Development (characterization). An author may reveal a character through the
character’s thoughts, words, appearance, and actions, or through what other characters say or
think. An author may also tell us directly what the character is like. Examining the characters and
how they interact with each other is a key element to understanding the piece of literature.
Here are some common questions about characterization:
Who is the main character? What words describe this character’s personality traits?
Who are the minor characters? What roles do they play?
How is one character similar to or different from another?
How is the main character involved in the conflict?
3. Setting is when and where a story takes place. You may be asked to determine why the setting
is important or how the setting affects the interpretation. The setting can clarify conflict, be the
catalyst for conflict, illuminate character, affect the mood (see literary term #9), and act as a
symbol.
4. Plot
Literature commonly follows a specific pattern or plot structure. It often begins with
exposition that may introduce the characters, establish the setting, and reveal the problem or
conflict. The tension may build through a series of complications (incidents that either help or
hinder the protagonist in finding a solution). This is the rising action. The climax is the peak or
turning point of the action, when the problem is resolved. At this point the reader usually knows
the outcome. The denouement or falling action is the part after the climax. It gives any
necessary explanation and ends with resolution, the sense that the story is complete.
5. Irony
a. Verbal Irony: the speaker’s intended central idea is far different from the usual
meaning of the words. For example, a teenager may tell his mother, “I just love cleaning up my
room,” when, in fact, the teenager means that he hates to clean his room.
b. Situational Irony (Irony of Fate): Irony of fate refers to developments that are far
from what is expected or believed to be deserved. One example of irony of fate would be famed
composer Ludwig von Beethoven’s loss of hearing.
c. Dramatic Irony: refers to a situation in which the audience knows more than the
character onstage. A character does or says something of greater importance than he or she
knows. The audience, however, is aware of the meaning and importance of the act or speech.
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d. Cosmic Irony: When situational irony is associated with the notion of fate, or a deity,
manipulating events so as to “frustrate and mock” a character in a literary work, situational
irony has become its near-twin, cosmic irony.
6. Imagery. Imagery, or language that appeals to the senses, allows the reader to experience
what the author is describing. You’ve heard the saying “a picture is worth a thousand words.”
Authors use imagery to convey a mental picture for the reader—more than they could
accomplish with literal words.
7. Symbolism is another way in which writers use language to express something more than the
literal meaning of the words. A symbol is something that stands for something else. For example,
an eagle may symbolize freedom.
8. Conflict Most plots have a conflict. The conflict is what triggers the action in the story. Here
are some common conflicts in literature:
person vs. person
person vs. nature
person vs. self
person vs. society
person vs. machine
9. Point of View is the perspective or vantage point from which a story is told. The point of view
refers to the narrator of a story, poem, or sometimes a drama, and determines how much he or
she knows.
a. first
The events are told by a character in the story using his or her own words. First-person stories
have narrators who use I, me, and my throughout the story. This sentence is an example of firstperson point of view: “I knew it was risky, but I was willing to take that chance.”
b. second
The narrator addresses the reader directly using the word you. This perspective is not as common
as either the first- or third-person points of view. This sentence is an example of second-person
point of view: “You knew it was risky, but you were willing to take that chance.”
c. third
A speaker outside the action narrates the events using he, she, and they. The narrator may tell the
events from the perspective of one character, focusing on this character’s thoughts and feelings,
or the narrator may see and know everything, even the thoughts of all the characters. This
sentence is an example of third-person point of view: “Carol knew it was risky, but she was
willing to take the chance.”
10. Mood in a piece of literature is a feeling or emotion created by the choice of words, the
characters and their actions, and the setting. Some authors create mood by using imagery.
11. Tone
The tone of a piece of literature is the attitude the author has toward the subject he or she is
writing about. Tone is reflected in the author’s word choices, style, and opinions. Some words
used to describe tone in literature are ironic, serious, puzzled, intimate, outraged, and cynical.
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12. Theme (central idea): The theme is the deeper central idea of a text. It refers to a universal
statement about life and/or society that can be discerned from the reading of a text. The theme of
a work is not the same as its main topic, which focuses strictly on the content.
a. Implicit: An idea that is not stated outright, meaning the idea is implied or hinted at
indirectly, not explained or stated directly.
b. Explicit: An idea or theme is fully expressed or revealed by the writer. Rather than
seeing “between” the lines, an explicit theme is explained or stated directly.
13. Topic Not the theme, but the subject of the content in a literary work.
14. Conclusion is a statement that must be true if the supporting statements are true. These
supporting statements may be facts, or they may be assumptions that are believed to be true.
15. Figurative Language (Connotative Meaning of Language): The words are comparisons to
different, often unexpected, ideas. Figurative language uses abstract ideas as opposed to literal or
denotative language to describe.
a. A simile makes a comparison using a linking word such as like, as, or than.
b. A metaphor makes a comparison without a linking word; instead of one thing being like
another, one thing is another.
c. Personification is giving human characteristics to non-human things.
d. Hyperbole is exaggeration beyond belief. Homer used hyperbole to describe the great feats of
epic heroes.
e. Idioms are quirky sayings and expressions specific to a language.
16. Denotation the dictionary or literal meaning of a word or statement.
17. Connotation of a word is a specific meaning or idea that the word brings to mind.
18. Cognates are words that have the same origin or are related in some way to words in other
languages. EX: Passé from Harper Lee’s TKAM.
19. Thesaurus a book that helps you to find synonyms and related words. (page41)
Strategies:
STRATEGY BOX––Map It Out (page 21)
1. Using a plot map can help you better understand a story’s development.
2. STRATEGY BOX––Take Notes While You Read
Whenever you read an informational passage on the EOCT, stop after each paragraph and ask
yourself, “What is the main idea of this paragraph?” After each paragraph, take a moment to jot
some notes that summarize what that paragraph was about. Sample notes about an essay titled
“Why Homework Is a Good Idea” may look something like this:
First Paragraph: importance of education
Second Paragraph: advantages of giving homework
Third Paragraph: how busy students feel they don’t have time for homework
Fourth Paragraph: ways students who have very little time can still get their homework done
Fifth Paragraph: how homework is an important part of education
Don’t spend too much time trying to come up with the perfect summary of each paragraph. Just
use about three to ten words to quickly summarize what each paragraph covers. Page 27
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3. Strategy Tip––Answer the Question First As you are answering questions on the
EOCT, you should always try to answer the question BEFORE you read the answer
choices. Once you have decided what the answer is, look at the choices. Are there any
choices close to the answer you came up with? That’s probably the correct answer.
Looking at the answer choices first, before you have a clear idea of the correct answer,
may confuse you. Some of the answer choices will be close to the correct answer, but will
not be the best answer. If you are unsure of the correct answer, you may choose the close,
but wrong, answer. (page 28)
4. Become a Detective Take a close look at the passage. What kind of support does the
author offer? Does the author use personal examples, descriptive details, statistics,
relevant research, facts, opinions, or hearsay as support? The kind of support tells a lot
about how strong the argument is. For example, if the author uses a personal example to
make a point about how well a medical procedure works, it is not as convincing as
scientific research to support the claim. (page 35)
5. Use Words Around it (page 40). When you are faced with an unknown word, go back to
the passage. Start reading two sentences before the word appears, and continue reading
for two sentences afterwards. If that doesn’t give you enough clues, look elsewhere in the
passage. By reading the context in which the word appears, you may be able to make an
educated guess.
6. Analyze the word by its parts (page 41). Look for familiar prefixes, suffixes, and word
roots when faced with an unknown word. Knowing the meaning of these word parts will
help you determine the meaning of the unknown word.
Domain II: Speaking and Listening
Terms to Know:
1. Rhetoric consists of language choices and techniques that writers use to communicate
perspective and to modify the perspectives of others. Rhetoric is about how ideas are presented
and messages are delivered. Rhetorical devices we have studied this year include chiasmus
(Maycomb county had been informed it had nothing to fear but fear itself – Harper Lee) and
anaphora (They thought it was cool -- Lupe Fiasco). Rhetorical devices oftentimes rely on
linguistic devices or patterns that we as human beings have evolved (since ancient Greek and
Roman times) to seek out and use to persuade one another of certain viewpoints.
2. Argument – is also known as persuasive writing. Argumentation is based on logic and reason
and has the intent of informing as well as persuading. The sole purpose of persuasive writing is
to convince people to think or act in a certain way. Most advertising is considered persuasive.
Argumentation may include editorials and opinion pieces; speeches; letters to the editor; job
application letters; and critical reviews, such as movie and book reviews. (Advertising will be
covered separately in Domain II) (26). An academic argument is technically defined as a reason
or set of reasons given with the aim of persuading others that an action or idea is right or wrong.
An example of this is how ads try to persuade you to buy something. Their arguments are facts
or assertions offered as proof that something is true.
a. Argument by Authority (Ethos) -- relies on statements from authority figures,
experts, or professionals to convince you of something. For example, an advertisement claiming
that “three out of four dentists agree that this toothpaste is the best” is an argument by authority.
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b. Argument by Emotion (Pathos)—appeals to your feelings. Relief organizations often
show pictures of people in very unfortunate situations to move you to donate money.
c. Argument by Logic (Logos)—appeals to reason and evidence to convince you of
something. For example, “People who have used our product have lost weight. You want to lose
weight. If you buy this product, you will lose weight.” Beware of false logic, however. Just
because some people buy a product and lose weight does not mean the product was responsible.
That’s why weight loss ads often warn people that the results of their models are not typical.
3. A credible source is one you can trust to present accurate, unbiased information. If the
argument is not set up in an accurate and unbiased manner, you may become skeptical or
suspicious of the motives behind an argument.
4. Integrate -- to combine or bring together information presented by different sources in
different formats. When you learn how to integrate sources properly, you know what information
to keep, what to leave out, and which formats work best for your purpose. You practiced this
skill last semester when you put together your zooburst books.
Study Tips:
1. Remember to read, watch, and surf the internet with a critical eye. Seek out persuasive
texts and try to find holes in the arguments presented. Is the ad too reliant on emotional
appeal or pathos? Do the facts seem unbiased or have they been manipulated to fit the
needs of the ad and the product?
2. As you read anything—magazines, cereal boxes, greeting cards, textbooks, or bumper
stickers—make a mental note of any unfamiliar word. Can you figure out its meaning by
the context? Have you encountered this word in a different context?
3. As you watch commercials and read ads, try to determine the intended audience (e.g.,
children, teenagers, adults, women, or men) and what approach is used (e.g., “if you use
this product, you will be popular” or “a famous athlete likes this product, so you will
too”).
4. As you watch television news, listen to the tone and style of the presenters. Do the
anchors adjust their speech to fit the topic?
5. As you read websites or news magazines, try to figure out the author’s purpose for
writing the material. Why did the author use that particular format?
Domain III: Writing – The key to answering questions in this domain correctly is to distinguish
the good writing from the poor writing. Overall, you want to make sure the writing in the
passage is precise, well organized, and easy to understand.
Terms to Know:
1. Central idea (Thesis Statement) The central idea of a piece of writing is often called the
thesis. Sometimes the thesis is stated very clearly. Understanding the central idea (thesis) is
crucial to understanding a passage. It would be hard to understand any article without realizing
that the central idea of the article. (You may not agree with the central idea, but you do have to
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understand it.) You would be missing the point of the article if you did not understand the thesis
correctly.
2. Subordinate Ideas (supporting ideas or topic sentences to body paragraphs) these
supporting ideas are always related to the thesis statement or central idea. The subordinate ideas
are typically found as topic sentences in body paragraphs.
3. Informational Text is writing that explains or informs (26). Informational texts include
business letters and memos; how-to passages that explain a process or project; news stories; and
historical, scientific, and technical accounts (including digital sources) written for a broad
audience. These texts use expository and descriptive writing to explain and describe the topic in
order to inform the reader.
a. report (noun): an account or statement describing in detail an event, situation, or
the like, usually as the result of observation, inquiry, etc.
b. magazine (noun): a publication that is issued periodically, usually bound in a
paper cover, and typically contains essays, stories, poems, etc., by many writers, and
often photographs and drawings, frequently specializing in a particular subject or
area, as hobbies, news, or sports.
c. informative essay (noun): The purpose of an informative essay, sometimes called an
expository essay, is to educate on a certain topic. It is not for giving an opinion or
convincing someone to do something or change his beliefs
4. Technical Writing is categorized as informational writing. Modes of technical writing include
business letters, proposals, memoranda, warranties, and even Web pages. These different kinds
of technical writing require using a variety of formats, as well as different levels of formal and
informal language.
Formal and Informal Language: Generally speaking, you should be able to distinguish
between formal and informal language. Typically, formal language is more grammatically
precise and contains longer sentences and more elaborate wording. In contrast, informal
language is not always grammatically accurate, and it may include slang words and phrases.
Informal
Formal
Dude! You’ve got to hear
The sound quality of the model TX is
this song!
No way, no how, can you beat
our sale prices!
I just heard the most awesome
news about Janet.
unsurpassed in the industry.
The results of the survey indicate that
consumer spending has dropped over the last
six months.
We have just learned from our sources in the
White House that a major political figure is
about to resign.
a. informal letters – are letters written to family, friends, or acquaintances written in
conversational English and may or may not contain an informal tone or the use of
slang depending on how well acquainted those involved in the correspondence may or
may not be.
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The salutation for informal letters looks like this:
Dear Aunt Sally, Here a comma is used as punctuation after the name in the
salutation line. In formal letters or business correspondence, a colon is used as
opposed to a comma.
b. formal letters – are sometimes used to offer solutions to problems. Usually they are
addressed to the person or group with the power to implement a solution. The
salutations of these letters are punctuated with a colon which looks like this :
Dear Sir/Madam:
These letters are signed off with a Sincerely,
c. business letters – are created to communicate information or to address issues of
almost any kind. The above punctuation applies. These letters use formal academic
English and have a professional or formal tone.
d. Warranties -- a stipulation, explicit or implied, in assurance of some particular in
connection with a contract, as of sale: an express warranty of the quality of goods.
There are home warranties, Best Buy sells warranties for electronic products,
manufacturers offer warranties to guarantee the soundness of a product.
e. Memorandum -- an informal message, especially one sent between two or more
employees of the same company, concerning company business: an interoffice
memorandum.
f. user manuals A user guide or user's guide, also commonly known as a manual, is a
technical communication document intended to give assistance to people using a
particular system. It is usually written by a technical writer, although user guides are
written by programmers, product or project managers, or other technical staff,
particularly in smaller companies
e. Internet sites – noun
a computer connected to the internet that maintains a series of web pages on the World Wide
Web; "the Israeli web site was damaged by hostile hackers" [syn: web site]
f. advertisements: When you see an advertisement for a product on television, it is clear that the
purpose is to persuade you to buy the product. You may even notice specific methods and
techniques that the advertisement uses to “hook you in.” Do you feel extra hungry when the
camera zooms in on a juicy burger just as the happy customer is about to take a bite? Do you
imagine a new product making your hair look just as perfect as it does on the model that has just
used it? Do you crave the admiration and compliments you would receive if you could drive
around in the same car being praised by the famous sports star? (page 56)
6. Style Conventions style includes an author’s tone, attitude, word choice or diction, and
grammatical structure which comprise the style or how an author chooses to write or say
(in oratory or speech) something.
7. Voice the distinctive qualities of a writer’s style, including diction, attitude, sentence
style, and ideas.
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8. Audience the reader(s) a writer intends to reach.
8. Research Process -- Research is a prewriting technique in which writers gather
information from outside sources such as library reference materials, interviews, and the
Internet. Research writing is expository writing that presents and interprets information gathered
through an extensive study of a subject.
a. Identify a topic & construct a valid thesis
b. Research related and valid sources for topic.
-primary sources give firsthand information on a topic
-secondary sources provide interpretations, explanations, and comments on
material from primary and other secondary resources.
c. Construct a Roman numeral outline of your thesis and related information. Include
proper MLA format and a Works Cited page.
d. Draft and revise a final copy of your paper with parenthetical MLA sources and a
properly formatted Works Cited page.
9. Encyclopedia is a type of reference work – a compendium (collection) holding a summary of
information from either all branches of knowledge or a particular branch of knowledge.
Encyclopedias are divided into articles or entries, which are usually accessed alphabetically by
article name.
10. Almanac (also archaically spelled almanack and almanach) is an annual publication
that includes information such as weather forecasts, farmers' planting dates, tide tables, and
tabular information in a particular field or fields often arranged according to the calendar etc.
Astronomical data and various statistics are also found in almanacs, such as the times of the
rising and setting of the sun and moon, eclipses, hours of full tide, stated festivals of churches,
terms of courts, lists of all types, timelines, and more.
11. Database (noun) a comprehensive collection of related data organized for convenient access,
generally in a computer.
How to cite an electronic database:
Junge, Wolfgang, and Nathan Nelson. “Nature's Rotary Electromotors.” Science 29 Apr. 2005: 64244. Science Online. Web. 5 Mar. 2009.
12. Atlas (noun) a book of maps or charts.
13. Writing process -- a process that begins with the exploration of ideas and ends with the
presentation of a final draft.
a. Prewriting – is the stage where you explore possible topics, choose a topic, and then
gather details you can include in your writing.
b. Drafting – involves putting ideas down on paper in a rough format.
c. Revising – is the stage in which you rework your rough draft to improve both its form
and its content.
d. Editing and proofreading – are the stages in which you polish your writing, fixing
errors in grammar, spelling and mechanics.
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e. Publishing and presenting – are the sharing of your writing.
Domain IV: Language
Terms to Know:
1. Phrase – any unit of related words that does not have both a subject and a verb.
a. noun phrase
 comprises a noun (obviously) and any associated modifiers:
 The long and winding road
b. verb phrase
A verb phrase is the portion of a sentence that contains both the verb and either a
direct or indirect object (the verb’s dependents).
EX: Peter gave Cristina a present. Verb Phrase: gave Cristina a present.
c. adjectival phrase
A phrase that collectively modifies or describes a noun or pronoun and which can usually
be used both attributively and predicatively, can be graded, and be modified by an
adverb.
Examples


That house down the block is a hideous shade of red.
The road tarred on Thursday is the one we need to take
d. adverbial phrase
An adverbial phrase is a group of related words which play the role of an adverb. Like all
phrases, an adverbial phrase does not include a subject and a verb.
Examples:
Tony decided to move to Reading yesterday. (normal adverb)
Tony decided to move to Slough in June last year. (adverbial phrase)
e. participial phrase
 Participles are
o verbs acting like adjectives
o ends in –ing
o ex: Reading, Jake entertained himself with the comic book.
 Participial phrases are
o When a participial is used with a direct object, subject complement,
adverb, etc.
o Ex: Reading her book intensely, she did not hear the bell ring.
f. prepositional phrase –
 group of words beginning with preposition and ending with a noun or pronoun
 can act as an adjective (I want a room with a view.)
 can act as an adverb (His house is on the lake.)
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g. absolute phrase is a group of words that modifies an independent clause as a whole.
An absolute is made up of a noun and its modifiers. It may precede, follow, or interrupt the main
clause:


Their slender bodies sleek and black against the orange sky, the storks circled high above us.
The storks circled high above us, their slender bodies sleek and black against the orange sky.
h. infinitive phrase
 infinitives are
o to + verb
o can act like a
 noun (I like to eat.)
 adjective (It’s the best place to eat.)
 adverb (I need a pen to write a letter.)
 Infinitive phrases are
o Infinitive + its modifiers and objects
 He likes to eat pepperoni pizza.
2. Clause – a unit of words that contains both a subject and a verb.
a. independent clause
 aka main clause
 every sentence must have at least one main clause
 can usually stand alone
 does not start with a relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction
b. dependent clause – there are three types of dependent or subordinate clauses: noun,
adjective/relative, and adverbs clauses.
 aka subordinate clause
 can never stand alone
 starts with a relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction
c. noun clause
 usually starts with a relative pronoun
 acts like a noun
 I hope that you understand the examples. (acts as direct object)
 I hope is independent.
d. relative clause (relative pronouns: who, whom, whose, which, and that) Relative
pronouns connect adjective clauses to the words they modify and act as subjects,
direct objects, objects of the prepositions, or adjectives in the clauses.
 aka adjective clauses
 usually starts with a relative pronoun
 acts like an adjective
 She likes the guy who sits in front of her. (modifies guy)
 She likes the guy is independent.
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e. adverbial clause
 usually starts with subordinating conjunction
 acts like an adverb
 We will eat when the bell rings. (modifies eat)
 We will eat is independent.
3. parallelism
 Similar ideas should be expressed in similar grammatical structures
 the constructions and forms should be the same
 Parallelism is used as a rhetorical and stylistic device in literature, speeches,
advertising, and popular songs.

Example:
o Raw eggs should not be eaten by people who are very young, pregnant,
elderly, or impaired in their immune system.
o (note that all four underlined words are adjectives; hence, all are in
parallel structure)
o Error Example: Swimming, running, and to hike are three of my favorite
activities. THIS IS WRONG. Must be: Swimming, running, and hiking are
three of my favorite activities. OR: To swim, to run, and to hike are three
of my favorite activities.
4. semicolon
 Joins two clauses without a coordinating conjunction
o He likes apples; she likes oranges.
o He goes to Harvard; however, she goes to Yale.
 Can be used in a series with commas for clarity
o We went to London, England; Paris, France; and Madrid, Spain.
5. sentence types
a. simple – one independent clause.
 I went to the store.
b. compound – two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
(FANBOYS)
 I went to the store, but I forgot my wallet.
c. complex – one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
 After I went home to get my wallet, I drove back to the store.
d. compound-complex – two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent
clauses
 When I walked into the store, I immediately headed for the produce section to
choose the ripest bunch of bananas, so I could prepare the perfect banana
pudding for my friend.
6. comma splice
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
two independent clauses are connected by only a comma
o Example Comma-splice: The sun is high, put on some sunblock.
o Corrected: The sun is high, so put on some sunblock. (inserted cc)
o
Or . . . The sun is high; put on some sunblock. (inserted ;)
7. run-on sentence
 Two or more sentences connected without any punctuation between them.
o Example: The sun is high put on some sunblock.
o Corrected: Same as above in comma-splice example.
8. fragment
 A group of words incorrectly punctuated as if it were a complete sentence.
o Examples:
 Working far into the night in an effort to salvage her little boat.
 Some of the students working in Professor Espinoza's laboratory
last semester.
Language Arts Terms Section
Parody – a mocking imitation of the style of a literary work or works, ridiculing (making fun of)
the stylistic habits (the way another author writes) of an author or school (way or form of
writing) by exaggerated mimicry.
Examples: Vampire Sucks, Family Guy, Scary Movie (plus all of their sequels), South Park,
Boondocks, and Loiter Squad
Satire – A mode of writing that exposes the failings of individuals, or societies to ridicule and
scorn. Satire is often an incidental element in literary works that may not be wholly satirical. See
above examples.
Myth – A fictional tale that explains the actions of gods or the causes of natural phenomena.
Drama – a literary genre that is intended to be performed on a stage by actors. The work has one
or multi-act plays. This work has dialogue, or speaking parts for the characters.
Soliloquy – A long speech expressing the thoughts of a character alone on the stage.
Monologue – A speech by one character in a play, story or poem. An example from
Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet is when Prince Escalus demands that the Capulets and the
Montagues end their feud.
Dramatic Poetry – Poetry that utilizes the techniques of drama. The dialogue used in Edgar
Allen Poe’s “The Raven” makes it dramatic dialogue.
Tragedy – A work of literature, especially a play, that results in catastrophe for the main
character. Example: Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare.
Comedy – A literary work, especially a play, that has both comedic elements to it in addition to
a happy ending (usually).
Political Drama – A literary work with a political component advocating a certain point of view
or describing a political event. A literary work performed by actors on a stage that entails
politicians, legal situations, historical situations, or other political forces that affect the lives of
people.
Polemic – a thorough written attack on some opinion or policy, usually written within a
theological or political dispute, sometimes also in philosophy or criticism.
Modern Drama (page 24) – like all modern literature, explores themes of alienation and
disconnectedness. Modern drama, which became popular in the early 1900s, strives to let the
audience feel as if it is peering in on real-life situations and experiencing real-life emotions.
Conventions – an established practice – whether in technique, style, structure, or subject-matter
– commonly adopted in literary works by customary and implicit rules of writing.
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Poetry is a literary genre that may encompass a variety of metered or rhythmically measured
lines and is intended to evoke an emotional experience in the reader. Poetry includes narrative
poems, lyric poems, free-verse poems, sonnets, odes, ballads, and epics.
Verse is writing that indicates the technical requirements of meter and rhythm are present.
Blank Verse is unrhymed iambic pentameter.
Iambic Pentameter is ten syllables of repeated unstressed followed by stressed syllables (an
iamb) in a line of verse or poetry. Iambic pentameter mimics the sound of a heart beat and is
most often found in sonnets and other forms of poetry.
Prose is a form of written language that is not organized according to formal patterns of verse;
although it will have some sort of rhythm and some devices of repetition and balance, these are
not governed by a regularly sustained formal arrangement, the significant unit being the sentence
rather than the line.
Narrative Poems tell stories and are distinct from dramatic, lyric, and epic poetry.
Lyric Poems are generally poetic works that express the mood, feeling, or meditation of a single
person, or of an invented character in the literary work.
Other terms to look up:
Free-Verse Poems
Sonnets
Odes
Ballads
Epics
Alliteration
Rhyme Scheme
Onomatopoeia
Foreshadowing
Flashback
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