APES Review
It takes energy to make energy
First Law of Thermodynamics- energy is neither
created nor destroyed, but may be converted
from on form to another.
Second Law of Thermodynamics- When energy
is changed from one form to another, some
useful energy is always degraded onto lower
quality energy (usually heat).
• Ionizing radiation- radiation w/ enough energy
to free electrons from atoms forming ions,
may cause cancer (ex. Gamma, X-rays, UV).
– Alpha particles are weak and the least
penetrating. A sheet of paper can stop them.
– Beta Particles are stronger than alpha but weaker
then gamma particles. A sheet of aluminum foil
will stop the particles.
– Gamma Particles are the strongest and can travel
through space at the speed of light.
• Natural Radioactive Decay- unstable
radioisotope to decay releasing gamma rays,
alpha & beta
– ex. Radon- an odorless, tasteless and invisible gas
produced by the decay of naturally occurring
uranium in soil and water. (carcinogen)
• Half-Life: the time it takes for ½ of the mass of
a radioisotope to decay. A radioactive isotope
must be stored for approximately 10 half-lives
until it decays to a safe level.
• High Quality Energy- Organized and
concentrated, can perform useful work (ex.
Fossil fuels and nuclear energy)
• Low Quality Energy- disorganized, dispersed
(ex. Heat in oceans or wind/air, solar)
• Nuclear fission- nuclei of isotope split apart
when struck by neutrons.
• Nuclear Fusion- 2 isotopes of light elements
(H) forced together at high temperatures till
they fuse to form a heavier nucleus. Happens
in the Sun, very difficult to accomplish on
Earth, prohibitively expensive.
• Ore- a rock that contains a large enough
concentration of a mineral making it profitable
to mine.
• Mineral Reserve- identified deposit currently
profitable to extract.
• Surface mining- Cheaper, can remove more
minerals, less hazardous to workers.
• Humus- organic, dark material remaining after
decomposition by microorganisms
• Leaching- removal of dissolved materials from
soil by water moving downwards through soil.
• Loam- perfect agricultural soil with equal
portions of sand, silt, and clay.
Soil Conservation Methods
Conservation tillage- crop cultivation in which the
soil is disturbed little (minimum-tillage farming) or
not at all (no-till farming)
Crop rotation- planting a field, or an area a field,
with different crops from year to year to reduce
soil nutrient depletion. (ex: 1 yr cotton, next yr soy
bean/legume)
Contour plowing- Plowing or planting across the
slope of the land, helps retain water and reduced
soil erosion
Organic fertilizers- natural fertilizers such as
manure, legumes, compost
• Soil Salinization- in arid regions, water
evaporates leaving salts behind.
– (ex: Fertile Crescent, Southwestern US)
Waterlogging- water completely saturates soil
starves plant roots of oxygen, rots root.
Hydrologic Cycle Components
Transpiration- trees release water
vapor
Evaporation- conversion of a liquid
to gas
Precipitation- water in the form of
rain, hail, sleet, snow falling from
the troposphere.
Infiltration-downward flow of
water through soil
Runoff-water flowing on earth’s
surface from rain of melting
snow/ice
Condensation- vapor to a liquid
Condensation nuclei- tiny particles
that droplets of water form
• Watershed- all of the land that drains into a
body of water.
• Aquifer- underground layers of porous rock
allow water to move slowly.
• Cone of Depression- lowering of the water
table around a pumping well.
• Salt water intrusion- near the coast,
overpumping of ground water causes
saltwater to move into the aquifer.
ENSO
(El Nino Southern Oscillation)
• ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation)- trade
winds weaken and warm surface water moves
toward South America. Diminished fisheries
off South America, drought in western Pacific,
increased precipitation in southwestern North
America, fewer Atlantic hurricanes.
La Nina
• La Nina: “Normal” year, easterly trade winds
and ocean currents pool warm water in the
western Pacific, allowing upwelling of nutrient
rich water off the West coast of South
America.
La Nina
El Nino
Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen Fixation- because Atmospheric N cannot
be used directly by plants, it must first be
converted into ammonia by bacteria.
• Ammonification- decomposer convert organic
waste into ammonia.
• Nitrification- ammonia is converted to nitrate ions
(NO-3)
• Assimilation- inorganic N is converted into organic
molecules such as DNA/amino acids and proteins.
• Denitrification- bacteria convert ammonia back
into N
Phosphorous Cycle
• Phosphorous- does not exist as a gas; released
by weathering of phosphate rocks, it is a
major limiting factor for plant growth.
Phosphorous cycle is slow and not
atmospheric.
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O +Light= C6H12O6 +6O2
Plants convert CO2 (atmospheric carbon) into
complex carbohydrates (glucose C6H12O6).
Aerobic Respiration
(uses oxygen)
• Oxygen using consuming producers,
consumers and decomposers break down
complex organic compounds and convert C
back into CO2.
Identify the biotic and abiotic factors
of this coniferous ecosystem
• Biotic- the living or once living components of
an ecosystem.
– Ex: leaves, trees, animals, plants, bacteria, etc.
• Abiotic- the non living components of an
ecosystem.
– Ex: light, minerals, temperature, water
• Autotroph/producer-Organisms that make their
own food-photosynthetic life (plant).
• Consumer- has to ingest in order to obtain energy
• Types of consumers:
–
–
–
–
Herbivore- consumes only plants
Carnivore- consumes only meat
Omnivore- consumes both plants and animals
Detritivore- consumes waste/dead organisms
• Ex: insects, other scavengers
Trophic
Levels
Energy Pyramid or
Pyramid of Biomass
Tertiary Consumer
(Top Carnivore: Human,
Bird of prey, bear, gator, wolf)
10 Kilocalories
What percentage
of usable energy
transfers from one
trophic level to the
next?
Secondary Consumer
(carnivore: bird, fox, bobcat)
100 Kilocalories
Primary Consumer
(herbivore: deer, rabbit
caterpillars)
1,000 Kilocalories
Producer
(Autotrophs: Plants, Algae)
10,000 Kilocalories
Energy Flow through Food Webs
• 5-20% can be transferred but 10% is
considered the average percentage of usable
energy that is transferred to the next trophic
level.
• Reason: usable energy lost as heat (2nd Law of
Thermodynamics), not all biomass is digested
and absorbed, predators expend energy to
catch prey.
Primary Succession
• Development of communities in a lifeless area
not recently inhabited by life (ex. Lava flow,
retreating glacier).
Lichens and mosses
(pioneer Species)
Secondary Succession
• Life progresses where soil remains
– Ex: clear-cut/burned forest, old farm, vacant lot
Ecological Stability
• Three aspects of stability
– Inertia or persistence: the ability of a living system
to resist being disturbed or altered.
– Constancy: the ability of a living system such as a
population of plants to keep its numbers within
the limits imposed by available resources.
– Resilience: ability of a living system to bounce
back and repair damage after a disturbance that is
not too drastic.
Relationships
• Mutualism- symbiotic
relationship where both
organisms benefit.
– EX:
• (a) Oxpeckers (or tickbirds) feed
on parasitic ticks that infest large,
thick-skinned animals such as the
endangered black rhinoceros.
• (b) A clownfish gains protection
and food by living among deadly,
stinging sea anemones and helps
to protect the anemones from
some of their predators.
• (c) Beneficial bacteria inhabiting
the intestine
• (d)Hummingbird and flower
Relationships continued….
• Commensalism- Symbiotic
relationship where one organism
benefits and the other is not
affected.
– EX
• bromeliad—an epiphyte, or air
plant—in Brazil’s Atlantic tropical
rain forest roots on the trunk of a
tree, rather than in soil, without
penetrating or harming the tree. In
this interaction, the epiphyte gains
access to sunlight, water, and
nutrients from the tree’s debris; the
tree apparently remains unharmed
and gains no benefit.
• Bird’s nesting in trees
Relationship Continued..
• Parasitism- relationship in
which one organism (the
parasite) obtains nutrients at
the expense of the host.
• EX:
– Lamprey and Trout
• Important:
– Parasite rarely kills the host
– Parasite-host interaction may
lead to coevolution
Predator and Prey Interactions Can
Drive Each Other’s Evolution
• Intense natural selection
pressures between predator
and prey populations
• Coevolution
– Species must interact over a long
period of time
– Bats and moths: echolocation of
bats and sensitive hearing of
moths
Carrying Capacity
• The number of individuals that can be
sustained in an area.
R- strategist or r-select species
• Reproductive strategy in which organisms
reproduce early, bear many small,
unprotected offspring (ex. Insects, mice).
K-Strategist or K-Select Species
• Reproductive strategy in which organisms
reproduce late, bear few, cared for offspring
(ex. Humans, elephants)
Natural Selection
• Organisms that possess favorable adaptations
pass them onto successive generations.
• Natural Selection drive’s evolution
• Through natural selection biological evolution
occurs in two steps
– Genetic mutations (random change in DNA
molecules)
– Adaptations
Evolution by Natural Selection continued…
**Genetic Resistance**
Explanation: Evolution by natural selection. (a) A population of bacteria is
exposed to an antibiotic, which (b) kills all individuals except those possessing a
trait that makes them resistant to the drug. (c) The resistant bacteria multiply
and eventually (d) replace all or most of the nonresistant bacteria.
Fig. 4-7, p. 87
How Do New Species Evolve?
• Speciation: one species splits into two or more
species
• Geographic isolation: happens first; physical
isolation of populations for a long period
• Reproductive isolation: mutations and natural
selection in geographically isolated populations
lead to inability to produce viable offspring when
members of two different populations mate
Speciation Continued…
Geographic isolation can lead to reproductive isolation, divergence of gene
pools, and speciation.
Thomas Malthus
“human population
cannot continue to
increase. Consequence
will be war, famine, and
pestilence (disease).”
Doubling Time
(Rule of 70)
• Doubling time equals 70 divided by percent
growth rate.
– (ex. A population growing @ 5% annually doubles
in 70/5=14 years)
• World population: a little over 6 billion
Replacement Level Fertility
• The number of children a couple must have to
replace themselves (average of 2.1 in more
developed nations, 2.7 in less developed
nations).
Demographic Transition Model
Preindustrial Stage: birth & death rates high,
population grows slowly, infant mortality high
Transitional Stage: death stage (infant
mortality) lower, birth rates remain high,
better health care, population grows fast.
Industrial Stage: decline in birth rate,
population growth slows
Postindustrial Stage: low birth & death rates.
Birth rate and death rate
(number per 1,000 per year)
Stage 1
Preindustrial
80
70
60
50
Population
grows very
slowly
because of
a high birth
rate (to
compensate
for high
infant
mortality)
and a high
death rate
Stage 2
Transitional
Stage 3
Industrial
Population grows rapidly because
birth rates are high and death
rates drop because of improved
food production and health
Total population
Birth rate
40
Population
growth
slows as
both birth
and death
rates drop
because of
improved
Stage 4
Postindustrial
Population growth
levels off and then
declines as birth rates
equal and then fall
below death rates
food
production,
health, and
education
30
Death rate
20
10
0
Low
Increasing
Very high
Decreasing
Low
Zero
Negative
Growth rate
over time
The demographic transition, which a country can experience as it becomes
industrialized and more economically developed, can take place in four stages.
Question: At what stage is the country where you live?
Fig. 6-17, p. 140
Age Structure Diagrams
• Broad base
• Narrow base
• Uniform shape
Rapid Growth
negative growth
Zero Growth
Age Structure Diagram
Most Populous Nations
1.
2.
3.
4.
China
India
U.S.
Indonesia
Population continued…
Low status of women- Most important factor
keeping population growth rates high.
Methods to Decrease Birth Rates:
family planning
contraception
economic rewards & penalties
H20
• Composition of water on Earth:
– 97.41% sea water
– 2.59% freshwater
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
1.984% Ice caps and glaciers
0.592% Groundwater
0.007% Lakes
0.0001% Rivers
0.001% Atmospheric Water Vapor
0.005% Soil moisture
0.0001% Biota
Aquaculture
• Farming aquatic species
– Commonly:
•
•
•
•
Salmon
Shrimps
Tilapia
Oysters
Types of Pollution
• Point source: source from specific location
such as pipe or smokestack.
• Non-Point source(area/dispersed source)source spread over an area such as
agriculture/feed lot runoff, urban runoff,
traffic.
• Primary sewage treatment- first step of
sewage treatment; eliminate most particulate
material from raw sewage using grates,
screens, gravity (settling).
• Secondary sewage treatment- second step of
sewage treatment; bacteria break down
organic waste, aeration accelerates this
process.
BOD
• Biological Oxygen Demand
– The amount of dissolved oxygen needed by
aerobic decomposers to break down organic
materials.
Eutrophication
• Rapid algal growth (algal bloom) caused by an
excess of nitrogen and phosphorous, blocks
sunlight causing the death/decomposition of
aquatic plants, decreasing dissolved oxygen
(DO), suffocating fish.
• Apoxia- the states of being without oxygen.
• Hypoxia- water with very low dissolved oxygen
levels, the end result of eutrophication, for
example.
CAFE Standards
• Corporate Average Fuel Economy
– Standards enacted into law in 1975, established
fuel efficiency standards for passenger cars and
light trucks.
– The fuel economy ratings for a manufacturer’s
entire line of passenger cars must currently
average 27.5 mpg for the manufacturer to comply
with the standard.
Primary Air Pollutant
• Produced by humans and nature (CO, CO2,
SO2, NO, Hydrocarbons, particulates).
• Read Pg 441- 444
Secondary Air Pollutant
• Formed by a reaction of primary pollutants.
• Secondary air pollutants are produced in the
air by the interaction of two or more primary
pollutants or by reaction with normal
atmospheric constituents, with or without
photoactivation.
– Examples of secondary air pollutants are Ozone,
Formaldehyde, PAN (peroxy acetyl nitrate), Smog)
photochemical or smoke induced), Acid mist
Particulate Matter
• Sources include burning fossil fuels and car exhaust.
• Effects include:
– Reduced visibility, respiratory irritation
• Methods of reduction include
– Filtering electrostatic precipitators and alternative energy.
– An electrostatic precipitator is a large, industrial emissioncontrol unit. It is designed to trap and remove dust
particles from the exhaust gas stream of an industrial
process. Precipitators are used in these industries:
Power/Electric, Cement, Chemicals, Metals, Paper
Precipitators function
• by electrostatically charging the
dust particles in the gas stream.
The charged particles are then
attracted to and deposited on
plates or other collection devices.
When enough dust has
accumulated, the collectors are
shaken to dislodge the dust,
causing it to fall with the force of
gravity to hoppers below. The
dust is then removed by a
conveyor system for disposal or
recycling.
Nitrogen Oxide (NOx)
• Major source of auto exhaust. Primary and
secondary effects include acidification of
lakes, respiratory irritation, leads to smog and
ozone. Reduced using catalytic converters.
• Equation for acid formation
• NO+O2 NO2+H20 HNO3
VOC’s
• Volatile Organic Compounds
– Organic compounds that exist as gases in the air, most are
hydrocarbons.
– Sources-Household products including: paints, paint strippers,
and other solvents; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays;
cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents and air fresheners;
stored fuels and automotive products; hobby supplies; drycleaned clothing.
– Health Effects- Eye, nose, and throat irritation; headaches, loss
of coordination, nausea; damage to liver, kidney, and central
nervous system. Some organics can cause cancer in animals;
some are suspected or known to cause cancer in humans.
– Ex: Formaldehyde, d-Limonene, toluene, acetone, ethanol
(ethyl alcohol) 2-propanol (isopropyl alcohol), hexanal, Propane,
butane, methyl chloride
Ozone
•
•
•
•
Secondary pollutant
NO2+UVNO+O; O+O2O3
With VOC’s (Volatile Organic Compounds)
Causes respiratory irritation and plant
damage.
• Reduced by reducing NO emissions and VOC’s.
Sulfur Oxide (SOx)
• Primary source is coal burning
• Primary and secondary effects include acid
deposition, respiratory irritation, and plant
damage.
• Reduction methods include:
– Scrubbers-Wet Scrubbers are effective air pollution
control devices for removing particles and/or gases
from industrial exhaust streams. Wet scrubbers
operate by introducing the dirty gas stream with a
scrubbing liquid – typically water. Particulate or gases
are collected in the scrubbing liquid.
– Burn low-sulfur fuel
– Equation for acid formation :
SO2+O2SO3+H2OH2SO4
Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
• Sources include the combustion of fossil fuels.
• Effects, greenhouse gas- contributes to global
warming.
• Reduction accomplished by increased fuel
efficiency (gas mileage), mass transit
(reduction).
Photochemical Smog
• Formed by chemical reactions involving
sunlight (NO, VOC, O2).
• Acid Deposition- Caused by sulfuric and nitric
acid resulting in lowered pH of surface water.
– Can cause pigmy forests
Greenhouse Gases
• Most significant: H2O, CO2, methane (CH4), CFC’s
(chlorofluorocarbons)
• Trap ongoing infrared energy (heat causing Earth to warm)
Effects of Global Warming
• Rising sea levels (due to thermal expansion
not melting ice)
• Extreme weather, droughts (famine), and
extinctions.
• What would happen without this process?
Ozone Depletion
• Caused by CFC’s, methyl chloroform, carbon
tetrachloride, halon, methyl bromide, all of
which attack stratospheric ozone.
• Negative effects of ozone depletion include:
– Increased UV
– Skin cancer
– Cataracts
– Decreased plant growth
Waste
• Sanitary Landfill
– Problems include leachate (a solution resulting
from leaching), which is solved using a liner with a
collection system; methane gas, which may be
collected and burned; and the volume of garbage,
which may be compacted and/or reduced.
• Municipal Solid Waste
– Is mostly paper and mostly put into landfills.
Incineration
• Advantages- volume of waste reduced by 90%
and waste heat can be used.
• Disadvantages- toxic emissions (polyvinyl
chloride, dioxin), scrubbers and electrostatic
precipitators needed, ash disposal.
Best solutions for waste problems
• Reduce the amount of waste at the source
Brownfield
• Abandoned industrial sites
• Brownfields are real property, the expansion,
redevelopment, or reuse of which may be
complicated by the presence or potential
presence of a hazardous substance, pollutant,
or contaminant. Cleaning up and reinvesting in
these properties protects the environment,
reduces blight, and takes development
pressures off greenspaces and working lands.
Keystone Species
• Species whose role in an ecosystem is more
important than others.
• Ex:
Otter
American Alligator
Starfish (Pisaster ochraceus)-keeps mussel
population in check and allows
macroinvertebrates to persist
Indicator Specie
• Species that serve as early warning signs that
an ecosystem is being damaged.
• Ex: Golden Toad of Costa Rica
– Drought
– Habitat Destruction
– Global Warming
In Natural Ecosystems
• 50-90% of pest species are kept under control
by:
– Predators
– Disease
– Parasites
Major Insecticide Groups
• Chlorinated Hydrocarbons -Dioxins
– Ex: DDT (persistent bioaccumulative & toxic
chemical)
• Organophosphates
– Ex: Malathion
• Carbamates
– Ex: Aldicard
Pesticides Pros
• Saves lives from insect transmitted disease
• Increases food supply
• Increases profits for farmers
Pesticides Cons
• Genetic resistance
• Ecosystem imbalance
• Pesticide treadmill (A few years after a pesticide is introduced,
insects develop resistance to it. So another chemical is used--until the bugs
overwhelm that one.)
• Persistence
• Bioaccumulation (chemicals are taken up by an organism either
directly from exposure to a contaminated medium or by consumption of food
containing the chemical)
• Biological magnification (Biomagnification is the process whereby
the tissue concentrations of a contaminant increase as it passes up the food chain
through two or more trophic levels) Ex: DDT and Eagles
Natural Pest Control
• Better agricultural practice
• Genetically resistant plants
• Natural enemies
– Ex: intro of Wasps to decrease caterpillar population
• Biopesticides (certain types of pesticides derived from such natural
materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain minerals.)
– Ex: The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains
of Bacillus thuringiensis, or Bt. Each strain of this bacterium produces a
different mix of proteins, and specifically kills one or a few related species
of insect larvae.
• Sex attractant (insect sex pheromones, that interfere with mating, as
well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to traps)
Genetically Modified Organisms
• GMO’s: new organisms created by altering
the genetic material (DNA) of existing
organisms; usually in an attempt to remove
undesirable characteristics in the new
organism.
Electricity Generation
• Steam, from water boiled by fossil fuels or
nuclear energy, or falling water is used to turn
a generator.
Nuclear Power Plant
Petroleum (Crude Oil) Formation
• Microscopic aquatic organisms in sediments
converted by heat and pressure into a mixture
of hydrocarbons.
Petroleum Pros/Cons
• Pros
– Cheap
– Easily transported
– High-quality energy
• Cons
–
–
–
–
–
Reserves depleted quickly/soon
Pollution during drilling
Transport and refining
Land subsidence (land sinking)
Burning oil produces CO2
Coal Formation
• Prehistoric plants buried un-decomposed in
oxygen- depleted water of swamp/bogs
converted by heat and pressure.
Rank of Coal
• Peat- partially decayed plant matter in swamps
and bogs; low heat content
• Lignite- Low heat content; low sulfur content;
limited supplies in most areas
• Bituminous coal- extensively used as a fuel
because of its high heat content and large
supplies; normally has a high sulfur content
• Anthracite- highly desirable fuel because of its
high heat content; supplies are limited in most
areas
Nuclear Reactor
• Consist of a core, control rods, moderator,
steam generator, turbine, containment
building
Alternate Energy Source
•
•
•
•
Wind- Turbine generated
Solar- Active and Passive
Waves- Tidal Power
Biomass- burning solid biomass and getting heat from
sewage
• Geothermal-using earth’s heat to produce
energy
• Fuel Cells- A device that combine oxygen gas and hydrogen gas fuel
to produce electricity and water vapor
Alternate Energy Source
• Wind- the earth’s rotation
set up air flows called
wind. Wind turbines
capture indirect forms of
solar energy and convert
it into electrical energy
through the use of a
turbine and generator.
Alternate Energy Source
• Solar– Active heating absorbs
energy from the sun by
pumping a heatabsorbing fluid (such as
water or an antifreeze
solution) through
special collectors
usually mounted on a
roof or on a special rack
to face the sun.
Hot water tank
Alternate Energy Source
• Solar
• Passive heating absorbs and stores heat from the sun
directly within a structure without need for pumps or
fans to distribute the heat.
Alternate Energy Source
• Waves- Tidal Power is harnessed twice a day
as the tide recedes and comes in (high and
low tide)
Alternate Energy Source
• Biomass- a diverse source
of energy that consists of
organic plant materials
(such as wood and
agricultural waste) and
animal waste that can be
burned directly as a solid
fuel or converted into
gaseous or liquid biofuels.
(heating, cooking,
industrial processes)
Remediation
• Return a contaminated area to its original
state.
LD-50
(Lethal Dosage)
• The amount of a chemical that kills 50% of the animals
in a test population.
• An LD50 is a standard measurement of acute toxicity
that is stated in milligrams (mg) of pesticide per
kilogram (kg) of body weight. An LD50 represents the
individual dose required to kill 50 percent of a
population of test animals (e.g., rats, fish, mice,
cockroaches). Because LD50 values are standard
measurements, it is possible to compare relative
toxicities among pesticides. The lower the LD50 dose,
the more toxic the pesticide.
Ozone
• Ozone is produced naturally in the stratosphere. But this "good"
ozone is gradually being destroyed by man-made chemicals referred
to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS), including
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs),
halons, methyl bromide, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform. These substances were formerly used and sometimes
still are used in coolants, foaming agents, fire extinguishers,
solvents, pesticides, and aerosol propellants. Once released into the
air these ozone-depleting substances degrade very slowly. In fact,
they can remain intact for years as they move through the
troposphere until they reach the stratosphere. There they are
broken down by the intensity of the sun's UV rays and release
chlorine and bromine molecules, which destroy the "good" ozone.
Scientists estimate that one chlorine atom can destroy 100,000
"good" ozone molecules.
Troposphere
• First layer of the atmosphere 0-10 miles above
the Earth’s surface. Contains weather,
greenhouse gases (bad ozone)
– "Bad" ozone at ground-level is harmful to breathe and
damages crops, trees, and other vegetation.
– Ground-level or "bad" ozone is not emitted directly
into the air, but is created by chemical reactions
between oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and volatile organic
compounds (VOC) in the presence of sunlight.
Emissions from industrial facilities and electric
utilities, motor vehicle exhaust, gasoline vapors, and
chemical solvents are some of the major sources of
NOx and VOC.
Stratosphere
• Second layer of atmosphere 10-30 miles
above the Earth’s surface.
• Contains protective ozone layers (good ozone).
– The "good" ozone layer in the stratosphere
protects life on Earth from the Sun's harmful
ultraviolet (UV) rays.
Inversion Layer
(Temperature inversion)
• A warm layer of air above a cooler layer traps
pollutants close to the Earth’s surface.
Mutagen
• Substances that cause change in DNA
• May result in hereditary changes
• A mutagen is a natural or human-made agent
(physical or chemical) which can alter the
structure or sequence of DNA.
• Ex: mustard gas used in World Wars I and II
Teratogen
• Substance that causes fetus
deformities (birth defects)
• a drug or other substance capable
of interfering with the development
of a fetus, causing birth defects.
• Ex: Nicotine
• Alcohol
• Tetracycline
• Thalidomide (mild sedative)
Carcinogen
• A cancer-causing substance or agent
• Ex:
–
–
–
–
–
Asbestos
Benzene
Formaldehyde
Solar Radiation
Tobacco Smoke,
Dioxin
• One of the most toxic human-made chemicals.
• Stable, long-lived, by-product of herbicide
production enters environment as fallout from
the incineration of municipal and medical
waste and persists for many years.
PCBs
(Polychlorinated Biphenyls)
• Stable, long-lived, carcinogenic
chlorinated hydrocarbons.
Produced by the electronic
industry, in industrial
processes, and in the
manufacture and recycling of
carbonless copy paper until
research revealed that they
pose risks to human health,
wildlife and the natural
environment.
• Banned in 1976
Multiple Use Public Lands
• National Forest and National Wilderness
Resource Lands
Moderately Restricted Use Public
Lands
• National Wildlife Refuges
Restricted Use Public Lands
• National Parks & National Wilderness
Preservation System
Divergent Plate Boundaries
• Tectonic plates spreading apart, new crust
being formed (ex. Mid-ocean ridges, rift
valleys).
Convergent Plate Boundaries
• Tectonic plates with the
oldest crustal material
on Earth moving
together, one moving
under another.
• Mineral deposits and
volcanoes are most
abundant at convergent
plate boundaries
– Ex: mid-ocean trenches
Transform Fault
• Tectonic plates sliding
past one another (ex.
San Andres Fault)
Endangered Species
• Most endangered species: have a small range,
require large territory, have long generations,
have a very specialized niche, or live on an
island.
Endangered Species
Atlantic Salmon
Interbreeding
w/ and competition
from escaped farmraised salmon from
the aquaculture
industry threaten the
wild salmon
population.
Endangered Species
California Condor
Reason for decline include
shootings, poisoning, lead
poisoning, collision with
power lines, egg
collecting, pesticides,
habitat loss, and the
decline of large and
medium size native
mammals due to
encroachments of
agriculture and
urbanization.
Delhi Sands Flower-Loving Fly
• A 1 inch long insect currently restricted to only
12 known populations in San Bernardino and
riverside counties. An estimated 98% of its
habitat has been converted to residential,
agricultural, and commercial use.
Florida Panther
• Hunting and development that resulted in
habitat loss and fragmentation.
Gray Wolf
• Subject of predator
eradication programs
sponsored by the federal
government. Prior to ESA
of1973, exterminated from
the lower 48 states except for
a few hundred inhabiting
extreme northeastern
Minnesota and a small
number on Isle Royale,
Michigan.
Grizzly Bear
• Conflict with humans and development that
resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation.
Piping plover
• Predation and human disturbance are thought
to be the main causes of the plover’s decline.
It is listed as endangered in the Great Lakes
region and as threatened in the Great Plains
region and on the Atlantic coast.
Manatee
• Initial population decreases resulted from
overharvesting for meat, oil, and leather.
Today, heavy mortality occurs from accidental
collisions with boats and barges, and from
canal lock operations.
Whooping Crane
• Drainage of wetlands,
conversion of grasslands
to agriculture, and
hunting for feathers.
Not Endangered Species
• Not Endangered Species
– America Alligator: overhunting and destruction of habitatremoved from ESA in 1987.
– Bald Eagle: ingested DDT by eating contaminated fish.
Bioaccumulation cause eggs shells to be thinned and
nesting failures- removed from ESA to threated in 1995.
– Peregrine falcon: ingested DDT by eating contaminated
smaller birds. Bioaccumulation cause eggs shells to be
thinned and nesting failures- removed from ESA list in
1999.
– Gray Whale: first marine mammal to be removed from
the ESA and threatened list.
Biomes
• Biome: large distinct terrestrial region having
similar climate, soil, plants, and animals.
Biomes
• Rain Forest: greatest diversity of species,
believed to include many undiscovered
species. Occur near the equator. Soil tends to
be LOW in nutrients.
• Two distinct seasons:
– Rainy
– Dry
– Absence of winter
Biomes
• Temperate Forest: Eastern North America,
Japan, Northeastern Asia, and Western and
Central Europe. Dominated by tall deciduous
trees. Well-defined seasons include a distinct
winter. Logged extensively, only scattered
remnants of original temperate forests
remain.
Biomes
• Boreal Forest or Taiga: Largest terrestrial
biome. Dominated by needleleaf, coniferous
trees. Found in the cold climates of Eurasia
and North America: Two thirds in Siberia with
the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and Canada.
Seasons are divided into short, moist, and
moderately warm summers and long, cold,
and dry winters. Extensive logging may soon
cause their disappearance.
Biomes
• Temperate Shrub Lands: Occurs along the
coast of Southern California and the
Mediterranean region. Characterized by area
of Chaparral-miniature woodlands dominated
by dense stands of shrubs.
Biomes
• Savannas- Grassland with scattered individual
trees. Cover almost half the surface of Africa
and large areas of Australia, South America,
and India. Warm or hot climates where the
annual rainfall is 20-50 inches per year. The
rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months
of the year, followed by a long period of
drought when fires can occur.
Biomes
• Temperate Grasslands: Dominated by grasses,
trees and large shrubs are absent.
Temperatures vary more from summer to
winter, the amount of rainfall is less than in
savannas. Temperate grasslands have hot
summers and cold winters. Occur in south
Africa, Hungary, Argentina, the steppes of the
former Soviet union, and the plains and
prairies of central North America.
Biomes
• Deserts: Cover about 1/5th of the Earth’s
surface. Rainfall less than 50 cm/year. Occur
at low latitudes, have considerable amounts of
specialized vegetation, as well as, specialized
animals. Soil is abundant in nutrients, need
only water for increase of productivity,
Biomes
• Tundra: treeless plains that are the coldest of
all the biomes. Occur in the arctic and
Antarctica. Dominated by lichens, mosses,
sedges, and dwarfed shrubs Characterized by
extremely cold climate, permanently frozen
ground (permafrost) low biotic diversity,
simple vegetation structure, limitation of
drainage, short season of growth and
reproduction.
Biomes
• Wetlands: areas of standing water wet all or
most of the year that support aquatic plants
including marshes, swamps, and bogs. Species
diversity is very high. Includes bogs, swamps,
sloughs, marshes
Biomes
• Fresh Water: defined as having a low salt
concentration (less than 1%). Plants and
animals are adjusted to the low salt content
and would not be able to survive in areas of
high salt concentration (i.e., ocean). There are
different types of freshwater regions: ponds
and lakes, streams and rivers, and estuaries.
• Know your Zones
Biomes
• Oceans: the largest of all the ecosystems.
The ocean regions are separated into
separate zones: intertidal, pelagic,
abyssal, and benthic. All four zones have
a great diversity of species.
Marine Ecosystems
Places to Know
• Chernobyl, Ukraine: April 26, 1986,
unauthorized safety test (irony), leads to fire
and explosion at nuclear power plant—
millions exposed to unsafe levels of radiation.
• Three-Mile Island, Pennsylvania: March 29,
1979, nuclear power plant loses cooling water
50% of core melts, radioactive materials
escape into atmosphere, near meltdown
(disaster).
Places to Know
• Yucca Mountain, Nevada: controversial as
proposed site for permanent storage of highlevel nuclear waste, 70-miles northwest of Las
Vegas, near volcano and earthquake faults.
Places to Know
• Aral Sea, Uzbekistan/Kazakhstan (former
Soviet Union): large inland sea is drying up as
a result of water diversion.
• Love Canal, NY: chemicals buried in old canal,
school and homes built over it led to birth
defects and cancers.
Places to Know
• Aswan High Dam, Egypt: the silt that made the
Nile region fertile fills the reservoir. Lack of
irrigation controls causes waterlogging and
salinization. The parasitic disease schistosomiasis
thrives in the stagnant water of the reservoir.
• Three Gorges Dam, China: world’s largest dam on
Yangtze River will drown ecosystems, cities,
archeological sites, fragment habitats, and
displace 2 million people.
Places to Know
• Ogallala Aquifer: world’s largest aquifer;
under parts of Wyoming, South Dakota,
Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Oklahoma, New
Mexico, and Texas (the Midwest). Holds
enough water to cover the U.S. with 1.5 feet
of water. Being depleted for agricultural and
urban use.
Places to Know
• Minamata, Japan: mental impairments, birth
defects, and deaths were caused by mercury
dumped in Minamata Bay by factory. Mercury
entered humans through their diet (fish).
Places to Know
• Bhopal, India: December 2,1984, methyl
isocyanate released accidentally by Union
Carbide pesticide plant kills over 5,000.
• Valdez, Alaska: March 24, 1989, tanker Exxon
Valdez hits submerged rocks in Prince William
Sound—worst oil spill in US waters.
Places to Know
• Fukushima Daiichi, Japan- Following a major
earthquake, a 15-metre tsunami disabled the power
supply and cooling of three Fukushima Daiichi
reactors, causing a nuclear accident on 11 March
2011. All three cores largely melted in the first three
days.
• The accident was rated 7 on the INES scale, due to
high radioactive releases over days 4 to 6, eventually
a total of some 940 PBq (I-131 eq).
• Radioactive material entered the pacific ocean and is
beginning to express it’s presence through
bioaccumulation.
Places to Know
• BP Oil Spill in 2011- more than 200 million
gallons of crude oil was pumped into the Gulf
of Mexico for a total of 87 days, making it the
biggest oil spill in U.S. history.
• 16,000 total miles of coastline have been
affected, including the coasts of Texas,
Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida.
Environmental Laws and Treaties
• Safe Drinking Water Act: set maximum contaminant levels for
pollutants that may have adverse effects on human health.
• Ocean Dumping Ban Act: bans ocean dumping of sewage sludge &
industrial waste.
• National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act: protects rivers with due to
aesthetic, recreational, wildlife, historical, or cultural reasons.
• Clean Water Act: set maximum permissible amounts of water
pollutants that can be discharged into waterways. Aim: to make
surface waters swimmable and fishable.
• Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act: requires coal strip mines
to reclaim the land.
• National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA): Environmental Impact
Statements must be done before any project affecting federal lands
can be started.
Environmental Laws and Treaties
• Clean Air Act: Set emission standards for cars, and limits for release
of air pollutants.
• Kyoto Protocol: controlling global warming by setting greenhouse
gas emissions targets for developed countries.
• Montreal Protocol: phase out of ozone depleting substances.
• Resource Conservation & Recovery Act (RCRA): controls hazardous
waste with a cradle to grave system.
• Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation & Liability
Act (CERCLA): The “Superfund” act, designed to identify and clean
up abandoned hazardous waste dumpsites.
• Endangered Species Act: identifies threatened and endangered
species in the US, and puts their protection ahead of economic
considerations.
Environmental Laws and Treaties
• Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species: (CITES) lists species that cannot be
commercially traded as live specimens or wildlife
products.
• Lacey Act: prohibits interstate transport of wild
animals dead or alive without federal permit.
• U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act: prohibits
taking marine mammals in U.S. waters and by
U.S. citizens, and the importing marine mammals
and marine mammal products into the U.S.
Environmental Laws and Treaties
• Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide
Act: regulates the effectiveness of pesticides.
• Food Quality Protection Act: set pesticide
limits in food, & all active and inactive
ingredients must be screened for
estrogenic/endocrine effects.
Environmental Laws and Treaties
• Low-Level Radioactive Policy Act: all states
must have facilities to handle low-level
radioactive wastes.
• Nuclear Waste Policy Act: US government
must develop a high level nuclear waste site
by 2015 (see Yucca Mountain).
People to Know
• Rachel Carson: published Silent Spring in
1962; documented the environmental damage
done by DDT and other pesticides. Which
heightened public awareness at the start of
the modern environmental movement.
• John Muir: founded Sierra Club in 1892;
fought unsuccessfully to prevent the damming
of the Hetch Hetchy Valley in Yosemite
National Park.
People to Know
• Gifford Pinchot: first chief of the US Forest
Service; advocated managing resources for
multiple use using principles of sustainable
yield.
• Garrett Hardin: published “The Tragedy of the
Commons” in the journal Science in 1968;
argued that rational people will exploit shared
resources (commons).
People to Know
• Aldo Leopold: wrote A Sand County Almanac
published a year after his death in 1948;
promoted a “Land Ethic” in which humans are
ethically responsible for serving as the
protectors of nature.
• Sherwood Rowland & Mario Molina: in 1974,
determine that CFCs destroy stratospheric
(good) ozone.
People to Know
• Paul Ehrlich- Wrote The Population Bomb in 1968. It
warned of the mass starvation of humans in 1970s and
1980s due to overpopulation and advocated immediate
action to limit population growth.
• Wangari Maathai (1940-2011) was the founder of the
Green Belt Movement and the 2004 Nobel Peace Prize
Laureate
• Theodore Roosevelt
•
• E.O. Wilson