CHAPTER 7
Infancy: Social and
Emotional Development
Learning Outcomes
LO1 Describe the development of
attachment in infants.
LO2 Discuss social deprivation, neglect,
and other factors that influence
attachment.
LO3 Discuss the effects of day care on
attachment.
LO4 Examine the emotional development
of infants.
LO5 Examine the personality of infants.
© John Curtis/Photolibrary
TRUTH OR FICTION?
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T-F Autistic children may respond to people as
though they were pieces of furniture.
T-F Children placed in daycare are more
aggressive than children who are cared for in the
home.
T-F Fear of strangers is abnormal among infants.
T-F All children are “born” with the same
temperament. Treatment by caregivers determines
whether they are difficult or easygoing.
T-F Girls prefer dolls and toy animals, and boys
prefer toy trucks and sports equipment only after
they have become aware of the gender roles
assigned to them by society.
© iStockphoto.com
LO1 Attachment: Bonds
That Endure
© John Curtis/Photolibrary
Attachment: Bonds That Endure
• Attachment defined:
– An enduring emotional bond between one animal or
person and another (Ainsworth)
– Attachment is essential to survival of the infant (Bowlby).
– Most people refer to it as “affection or love”
• Patterns of Attachment
– Separation Anxiety
• Infants try to maintain contact with caregivers they are
attached to by:
– Engaging in eye contact; pulling and tugging at them;
asking to be picked up, etc.
• Separation results in:
– Thrashing, fussing, crying, screech, whining, etc.
Attachment: Bonds That Endure
• Patterns of Attachment, con’t.
– Secure Attachment
• Most infants in U.S. are securely attached.
• The Strange-Situation Method is a way to measure an
infant’s attachment by being exposed to a series of
separations and reunions with the caregiver (usually
mother) and a stranger (confederate of researchers).
• Secure Infants will:
– Mildly protest when mother leaves
– Seek interaction with her upon reunion
– And are easily comforted
• Secure Infants and Toddlers are:
– Happier, more social, more cooperative
– By age 5-6, get along better with peers and are better
adjusted in school than insecure children
Figure 7.1 – The Strange Situation
Attachment: Bonds That Endure
• Patterns of Attachment, con’t.
– Two major types of Insecurity:
• Avoidant Attachment
– Least distressed by mother leaving; continue to play without
fussing; ignore mother when she returns
• Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment
– Most emotional at separation
– Show severe signs of distress when mother leaves
– Ambivalence at her return; alternately clinging and pushing
her away
– Additional category
• Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment
– Show contradictory behaviors; seem dazed, confused,
disoriented
– Results of insecure attachment
• Insecure attachment at age 1 predicts psychological disorders at
age 17
Establishing Attachment
• Attachment is related to quality of care.
– Parents of secure infants
• Are more affectionate, cooperative, and predictable
• Respond with more sensitivity to infant’s needs
– Intergenerational transmission of attachment shows
• If mother was a secure infant, the more likely her children
will be also.
• Siblings of same sex are more likely to form similar
attachments to mother.
• Security patterns are related to infant temperaments.
– Mothers of “difficult” children are less responsive and
security patterns of child may be affected.
– Involvement of Fathers
• Fathers in developed nations are becoming more involved
in child care but mothers still engage in more
• Fathers engage in more “play” activity than “care” activity
• Father’s play is more physical; mother’s play is toward
more cognitive activity, like games
Stages of Attachment
• Indiscriminate Attachment
– No particular preferences for a familiar caregiver
– Most infants have multiple attachments
• Three Phases of Attachment
– Initial-preattachment
• B-3 months: indiscriminate attachment
– Attachment-in-the-making
• 3-4 months: a preference for familiar caregiver emerges
– Clear-cut-attachment
• 6-7 months: intensified dependence on primary caregiver,
usually mother
Figure 7.2 – Development of Attachment
Theories of Attachment
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Cognitive View
Behavioral View
Psychoanalytic Views
Caregiver as a Source of Contact Comfort
Ethological View
Theories of Attachment
• Cognitive View
– Suggests infant must develop concept of object
permanence before specific attachment is possible
• Infants tend to develop specific attachments at about 6-7
months.
• Basic object permanence develops somewhat earlier (2-6
months).
• Behavioral View
– Attachment behaviors are due to conditioning.
• Caregivers attend to infant’s needs.
• Infant associates caregiver with gratification of needs.
• Caregiver then is a conditioned reinforcer.
Theories of Attachment
• Psychoanalytic Views
– The caregiver (usually mother) becomes a love object
that forms the basis for all later attachments.
• Freud
– Infant becomes emotionally attached to mother during the
oral stage since she is the primary source of food and
sucking.
• Erickson
– First year is critical for developing sense of trust in mother,
thus fostering attachment.
– Mother’s general sensitivity, not just meeting oral needs,
fosters attachment.
• Caregiver as a Source of Contact Comfort
– Harlow experiments (Harlow & Harlow 1966)
• Conducted classic experiments with baby monkeys
• Demonstrated feeding was not critical to attachment
• If generalized to humans, the need for contact comfort is
as basic as need for food.
Figure 7.3 – Contact Comfort
Theories of Attachment
• Ethological View
– Attachment is instinctive.
• In some nonhuman animal species, attachment occurs
during a critical period, also known as imprinting.
– i.e, waterfowl become attached to the first moving object
they encounter after hatching
• Similarity: In humans by 2-3 months of age
– Infants begin to elicit social smiles.
– Helping to ensure survival by garnering affection of
caregiver
• Differences:
– Caregiving in humans is largely
learned and not innate.
– If a critical period of attachment
in humans exists, it would extend
to months and years.
LO2 When Attachment
Fails
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When Attachment Fails
• Social Deprivation
– Experiments with Monkeys
• Total solitary confinement in first 6 months caused:
– Cowering; rocking behaviors; lack of self-dense when
threatened
– Females that later bore offspring ignored or abused
them
– However, if placed with younger they eventually
began to play and even expanded social contacts to
older peers
When Attachment Fails
• Social Deprivation
• Even if material needs are met, but no social stimulation
is experienced, children exhibit problems in all areas of
development.
• Children isolated in institutions receiving no contact
except to feed and change diapers
(bottles propped in cribs) display
similar effects that monkeys
experience.
– None were speaking by 12
months of age.
• Deficiencies in sensory stimulation
and social interactions once
children are of the age to develop
specific attachments leads to
attachment disorders.
© Jan Csernoch/Alamy
– Studies with Children
When Attachment Fails
• Social Deprivation, con’t.
– The Capacity to Recover
• Infants have powerful capacities to recover from
deprivation.
• If placed in socially enriched environments, most will
attain their physical equivalencies.
• There is also evidence that points to their ability to
recover from social deprivation if given social care and
opportunities.
Child Abuse and Neglect
• Statistics
– 3 million American children are neglected or abused
ever year.
• 50-60% of cases go unreported (incidence is actually
higher).
– By age of 2 years:
• 90% of parents have engaged in sort of psychological or
emotional abuse
• 55% have slapped or spanked child
• 31% have pushed, grabbed, or shoved
– 150,000 of the 3 million reported cases involved sexual
abuse
• 25% girls; 18% boys
Child Abuse and Neglect
• Effects
– Abused children show higher incidence of person,
social, and psychological disorders
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Less attached to parents
Less intimate with peers
More aggressive, angry, and noncompliant
Have lower self-esteem
Perform poorly in school
Have higher risk for delinquency, risky sexual behaviors,
and substance abuse
• In adulthood are more likely to act aggressively toward
partners
Child Abuse and Neglect
• Causes
– Contributing factors include:
• Stress
– Divorce; job loss; moving; birth of new baby
– A baby that is difficult to soothe and cries excessively
• Family History
– At lease on parent’s family of origin lacked adequate
coping skills
• Inadequate Coping and Child-Rearing Skills
• Unrealistic Expectations of Child
– Children who are disobedient, inappropriate, or
unresponsive are at greater risk.
• Substance Abuse
Child Abuse and Neglect
• What to do
– Mandatory Reporting
• Many states require helping
professionals to report any
suspicion of child abuse.
• Some states require anyone
to report.
– Techniques for Prevention
© Jeff Hutchens/Getty Images
• Strengthening parenting skills among the general
population
• Targeting high risk groups
– Poor, single, teen mothers
• Presenting information about abuse and providing support
to families
– Providing hot-lines to call for help
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
• These disorders are characterized by impairment in
communication skills, social interaction, and
repetitive, stereotyped behaviors.
• They tend to become evident by age 3 and
sometimes before first year.
• Recent CDC study identified 1 in every 152 children
as having an ASD.
• Types of ASD:
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Asperger’s Disorder
Rett’s Disorder
Childhood Disintegrative Disorder
Autism
Figure 7.1 – Characteristics of Autism Spectrum
Disorders (ASDs)
Source: Adapted from Strock (2004).
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
• Types of ASD
– Asperger’s Disorder
• Displays social deficits and stereotypical behaviors but
without significant cognitive or language delays
– Rett’s Disorder
• Displays range of physical, behavioral, motor, and
cognitive abnormalities that begin a few months after
normal development
– Childhood Disintegrative Disorder
• Displays abnormal functioning and loss of previously
acquired skills; onset about 2 years after normal
development
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
• Types of ASD, con’t.
– Autism: major form of ASD; 4-5 times more
common in boys
– Symptoms:
• No interest in social interaction; avoid eye contact
• Weak or absent attachment to others
– Shun affection, such as hugging, cuddling, and kissing
• Communication problems
– Speech lags: may show mutism (refusal to speak),
echolalia (word repetitions), and pronoun reversal
(referring to self as “you, etc.”
– About half use language by mid-childhood but not well
• Intolerance of change; ritualistic/stereotypical behaviors
– “Preservation of Sameness”
• Deficits: In peer play, imaginative play, imitation,
emotional expressiveness
– Self mutilation, head banging, face slapping, biting, pulling
out hair
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
• Causes
– Parental Care
• Research shows NO CORRELATION between
development of Autism and deficiencies in child rearing.
– Genetic
• Kinship studies show
– Concordance (agreement) rates in MZ (identical)
twins at 60%; DZ (fraternal) twins at 10%
– Neurological
• Abnormal brain wave patterns are evident
• Brain has abnormal sensitivity to neurotransmitters
– Serotonin, dopamine, acetylcholine, and
norepinephrine
• Unusual activity in motor region of cerebral cortex; less in
other areas
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
• Treatment
– Behavior Modifications
• Most current treatments are in this category.
• Used to help develop new behaviors using operant
conditioning (introducing reinforcers for desired
behaviors).
• Can increase child’s ability to attend to others and play
with other children
• Use of electric shock therapy is used in cases of selfmutilation.
– Raises serious moral, ethical, and legal concerns
– But advocates argue that self-mutilation places child at
greater risk
Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)
• Treatment, con’t.
– Biological approaches
• New biological treatments are currently under study.
• Drugs that enhance serotonin activity help prevent:
– Self-injury; aggressive outbursts; depression; anxiety;
repetitive behaviors
• Drugs used to treat schizophrenia (major tranquilizers)
help with:
– Stereotyped behaviors, hyperactivity, and self-injury
– Prognosis
• Autistic behavior generally continues into adulthood to
one degree or another.
• However, some do overcome it’s limitations and go on to
function independently and even achieve college
degrees.
LO3 Day Care
© John Curtis/Photolibrary
Daycare
• Statistics
– 10 million (20%) of American children under age 5 are in
daycare centers.
• Pros
– Infants in both home-care and daycare are equally
securely attached to caregivers.
– Some studies show daycare leads to higher
developmental levels and more peer oriented play.
– Children in high quality daycare are more likely to share
toys, are more independent, self-confident, outgoing,
affectionate, and are more helpful and cooperative with
peers and adults.
– Participation in daycare is also linked to higher
academic performance in elementary school.
Daycare, con’t
• Quality of daycare defined by:
– “Richness” of learning environment
• Availability of toys, books, etc.
• High ratio of caregivers to children
• High amount of individual attention
• Cons
– Children in daycare may be more aggressive and less
cooperative.
• The more time spent away from mothers, the more likely
they are to be rated as defiant, aggressive, and
disobedient in kindergarten.
– More likely to interrupt class, tease, and bully when in
grade school
• But within “normal” limits
• Quality of daycare center made no difference
• Persistent through 6th grade
Daycare, con’t
• Conclusions
– Although differences in disruptive behavior between
daycare and home-care children are statistically
significant (unlikely due to chance), they are small.
– Reality check: millions of parents are in the workforce
and have no alternative
© liquidlibrary/Jupiterimages
• Even choice of where to
place child is governed by
financial and geographic
circumstances.
LO4 Emotional
Development
© John Curtis/Photolibrary
Emotional Development
• Emotions Defined:
– A state of feeling that includes:
• Physical responses: rapid heart rate; tense muscles
• Situational components: pos/neg responses depends on
who is involved and what is happening
• Cognitions: our own perspective and ideas
– Unclear how many emotions babies have
• They cannot tell us how they are feeling.
• We must rely on observation of their behaviors, including
facial expressions.
Emotional Development
– Facial expressions
• Universally recognized throughout world
• Have consistent emotional interpretation
– 2 basic states of infant emotional arousal
• Positive attraction
– 2-3 months social smiling is expressed
– 3-5 months laughing out loud
• Withdrawal from aversive stimulation
– In Sum:
• Infants show only a few emotions during first few
months.
• Emotional development is linked to cognitive and
social experience.
– No clear agreement of when specific emotions are first
present or whether any are present at birth.
Emotional Development
• Emotional Development and Patterns of Attachment
– Securely attached children express less anger when
experiencing separation anxiety.
– Negative emotions in insecurely attached children rise
when separated.
– Avoidant children grow fearful.
– Resistant children become less happy.
• Fear of Strangers
– a.k.a stranger anxiety is normal
• Appears about 6-9 months
• Declines about 9-12 months
• Child will show less fear if mother is present or in familiar
settings.
Emotional Development
• Social Referencing : What Should I Do Now?
– Seeking out another person’s perception of a situation to
help us form our own view of it
– Infants engage in social referencing as early as 6
months.
– Use facial expressions and tone of voice as cues
– Requires 3 components:
• Looking at someone else (usually an elder)
• Associating the other’s response with the situation
• Regulating their own response to match the elder
Emotional Development
• Emotional Regulation: Keeping on an Even Keel
– Ways in which young children control their own
emotions (learning to self-regulate emotions)
– Infants may look away from aversive event or suck their
thumb.
• Caregivers help infants learn self-regulation by engaging
in a two-way communication system.
• Children of secure mothers are more likely to self-regulate
in a positive manner.
• Adolescents who were secure infants are better able to
self-regulate and interact cooperatively in social situations.
LO5 Personality
Development
© John Curtis/Photolibrary
Personality Development
• The Self-Concept
• Temperament: Easy, Difficult, or Slow to Warm Up?
• Sex Differences
© Alison Williams/Shutterstock
Personality Development
• The Self-Concept
– The understanding that we are separate and distinct
from the world outside, or becoming aware of ourselves
– Development of the Self-Concept
• Around 18 months will recognize dot of rouge on nose
when viewing self in a mirror
• By 2 years most can identify themselves in photos and
begin to use “I” or own name
• Self-awareness impacts social and emotional development
– Knowledge of self permits and promotes development of
sharing and cooperative behaviors
• Self-awareness also facilitates development of “selfconscious” emotions:
– Embarrassment, envy, empathy, pride, guilt, and shame
Personality Development
• The Self-Concept, con’t.
– Psychoanalytic Views of Self-Concept
• 5 months - 3 years: self-concept emerges through a
process of separation-individuation
– Separation: child’s growing perception that mother is
separate from self
– Individuation: child’s increasing sense of independence and
autonomy
» Increasing autonomy usually accompanied by refusals to
comply with requests of caregivers
» Younger toddlers more likely to ignore or defy.
» Older toddlers and preschoolers more likely to make
excuses or negotiate.
Personality Development
• Temperament:
– Defined:
• A stable way of reacting and adapting to the world that is
present early life
• Many researchers believe it involves a strong genetic
component.
• It includes various aspects of behavior:
– Activity level: smiling and laughter; regularity in eating and
sleep habits; approach or withdrawal; adaptability to new
situations; intensity of responsiveness; general cheerfulness
or unpleasantness; distractibility or persistence; soothability
Personality Development
• Temperament: con’t.
– Types of Temperament:
• Easy = 40%
– Regular sleep and feeding habits; adapts to new people and
situations easily; generally cheerful
• Difficult = 10%
– Irregular sleep and feeding habits; slow to accept new people
and situations; cries and has temper tantrums
• Slow to Warm up = 15%
– Falls somewhere between Easy and Difficult
• Mixture of all types = 35%
– Stability of Temperament
• Moderate consistency is observed over life span.
• Difficult children at greater risk for developing
psychological disorder later in life.
Table 7.2 – Types of Temperament
Sources: Chess & Thomas (1991) and Thomas & Chess (1989).
Personality Development
• Temperament: con’t.
– Goodness of Fit: The Role of the Environment
• Refers to whether the interaction between child and
caregiver/s is positive or negative
• An initial predisposition to a certain temperament can be
strengthened or weakened by parents reaction to child.
• A “good fit” is one in which parents are able to modify child
behavior in a positive direction while maintaining a positive
attitude for both.
© Radius Images/Jupiterimages
Personality Development
• Sex Differences
– All cultures distinguish between females and males and have
expectations about behaviors of each.
– A child’s sex is a key factor in society’s efforts to shape its
personality and behavior.
– Girls and Boys are similar in social behaviors until about 9 -18
months.
• Boy behaviors
– 9-18 mos: prefer playing with toy trucks, tools, and sports
equipment
• Girls behaviors
– Advance faster in motor development
– 12-18 mos: prefer playing with dolls, toy animals, etc.
– By 24 months, both boys and girls have clear
understanding of what is considerate appropriate
behavior for their sex.
Personality Development
• Adults’ Behavior toward Infants
– Adults interact differently with boys and girls.
• Both Parents
– More likely to engage in rough-and-tumble play with
boys (especially fathers)
– Talk more to daughters than sons
– Smile more at daughters and express emotions more
– Dress girls in more delicate fabrics and lighter colors
– Dress boys in stronger fabrics and colors
– Decorate girls rooms with flowers and pink colors
– Decorate boys rooms with with animal themes and
blue colors
– Encourage child to engage in play with “sex
appropriate” toys; fathers especially discourage sons
playing with “girl” toys and vice versa