Russia!
A Brief History and Political
Examination
Just a Bit of Background….
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Russia is about 1.8 times the size of United States, about 17 million
square miles
The capital city is Moscow
Russia’s 141.9 million citizens descend from more than 100 ethnic
groups. Russian is the official language of Russia and is one of the six
official languages of the United Nations.
Natural resources: Petroleum, natural gas, timber, furs, precious and
nonferrous metals.
Education (total pop.): Literacy--99.4%.
Health: Life expectancy (2007 est.)--67.5 average; 61.4 yrs. men, 73.9
yrs. women.
Industry: Types--Complete range of manufactures: automobiles, trucks,
trains, agricultural equipment, advanced aircraft, aerospace, machine and
equipment products; mining and extractive industry; medical and
scientific instruments; construction equipment.
Some Vocab Terms that
May Interest You……
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Bolsheviks: Lenin’s faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party; later came to mean anyone who followed
his views and/or organization.
Brezhnev, Leonid: General secretary of the CPSU from 1964 until 1982. Largely responsible for the
stagnation of the USSR.
Central Committee: Supposedly the most important body in a communist party; its influence declined as it
grew in size and the party needed daily leadership.
Cheka: The Soviet Union’s first secret police.
Chernomyrdin, Viktor: Prime minister of Russia, 1993–98.
Comintern: The interwar coalition of communist parties directed from Moscow.
Communist Party of the Russian Federation: The new incarnation of the CPSU for Russia.
Communist Party of the Soviet Union: The party that ran the Soviet Union until its collapse in 1991.
CPSU: Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Democratic centralism: The Leninist organizational structure that concentrates power in the hands of the
party elite.
Fatherland–All Russia: One of the leading opposition parties in Russia in the 1999 Duma elections.
Federation Council: The largely powerless upper house of the Russian parliament.
Five-year plan: In the former Soviet Union and other communist countries, the period for which Gosplan
developed goals and quotas.
Gaidar, Yegor: Reformist politician and acting prime minister of Russia in 1993.
Glasnost: Under Gorbachev, Soviet policies that opened up the political system and allowed for freedom of
expression.
Gorbachev, Mikhail: Head of the CPSU and last president of the Soviet Union.
Gosplan: The Soviet central planning agency.
More Terms
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KGB: Soviet secret police
Khodorkovsky, Mikhail: Russian tycoon arrested on corruption and tax evasion charges in
2003.
Khrushchev, Nikita: Successor of Josef Stalin as head of CPSU and Soviet Union from 1953
until he was ousted in 1964.
Lenin, V. I.: Architect of the Bolshevik revolution and first leader of the Soviet Union.
Liberal Democratic Party: In Britain, the number-three party and in some ways the most
radical; in Japan, the dominant party since the 1950s; in Russia, the neofascist and racist
opposition party led by Vladimir Zhirinovsky.
Mensheviks: The smaller and more moderate faction of the Russian Social Democratic Party
before World War I.
Near abroad: Russian term to describe the other fourteen republics of the former Soviet
Union.
NEP: New Economic Policy in USSR
Nomenklatura: The Soviet system of lists that facilitated the CPSU’s appointment of trusted
people to key positions. Adopted by other communist regimes.
Oligarch: Business and political leaders with what some think is undue influence in Russia.
Our Home Is Russia: New political party chaired by former prime minister Viktor
Chernomyrdin.
Perestroika: Ill-fated program to reform the Soviet economy in the late 1980s.
Politburo: Generic term used to describe the leadership of communist parties.
Power ministries: The most important departments in the Russian government.
Privatization: The selling off of state-owned companies.
Even More Terms
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Provisional government: Generic term used to describe temporary governments until a new
constitution is written; also the government in Russia between the two 1917 revolutions.
Purge: The systematic removal of people from party, state, or other office; especially common in
communist systems.
Putin, Vladimir: President of Russia since 2000.
RSFSR: Official title of the Russian Federation of the old Soviet Union
Russian Federation: Formal name of Russia.
Secret speech Given by Khrushchev in 1957, seen as the start of the “thaw.”.
Secretariat: Generic term used to describe the bureaucratic leaders of a communist party.
Shock therapy: Policies in formerly communist countries that envisage as rapid a shift to a market
economy as possible.
Stalin, Joseph: Leader of the CPSU and Soviet Union, 1924–53.
State Duma: The lower house of the Russian parliament.
State Security Council: The leading ministers of the Russian government.
Third International: Moscow-dominated organization of communist parties around the world between
the two world wars.
Twentieth Party Congress: Occasion of Khrushchev’s “secret speech” launching de-Stalinization.
United Russia: The political party led by Russian president Vladimir Putin.
Yaboloko: One of the leading reformist parties in Russia.
Yeltsin, Boris: Former reformist communist leader and president of Russia, 1991–2000.
Zhirinovsky, Vladimir: Leader of the right-wing and racist Liberal Democratic Party in Russia.
Zyuganov, Gennady: Head of the Russian Communist Party.
Russia’s Early Years
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The first lineal predecessor of the modern Russian state was founded in 862. The
political entity known as Kievan Rus was established in Kiev in 962 and lasted until
the 12th century. Byzantine culture predominated, as is evident in much of Russia's
architectural, musical, and artistic heritage. Mongols under Batu Khan destroyed
the main population centers except for Novgorod and Pskov in the 13th century
and prevailed over the region until 1480..
Ivan III (1462-1505) referred to his empire as "the Third Rome" and considered it
heir to the Byzantine tradition. Ivan IV (the Terrible) (1530-1584) was the first
Russian ruler to call himself tsar. He pushed Russian eastward with his conquests
but his later reign was marked by the cruelty that earned him his familiar epithet.
He was succeeded by Boris Godunov, whose reign commenced the so-called Time
of Troubles. Relative stability was achieved when Michael Romanov established the
dynasty that bore his name in 1613.
During the reign of Peter the Great (1689-1725), modernization and European
influences spread in Russia. Peter created Western-style military forces,
subordinated the Russian Orthodox Church hierarchy to the tsar, reformed the
entire governmental structure, and established the beginnings of a Western-style
education system. He moved the capital westward from Moscow to St. Petersburg,
his newly-established city on the Baltic.
Catherine the Great continued Peter's expansionist policies and established Russia
as a European power. During her reign (1762-96), power was centralized in the
monarchy, and administrative reforms concentrated great wealth and privilege in
the hands of the Russian nobility.
Early Years cont.
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Alexander I (1801-1825) began his reign as a reformer, but after
defeating Napoleon's 1812 attempt to conquer Russia, he became
much more conservative and rolled back many of his early reforms.
During this era, Russia gained control of Georgia and much of the
Caucasus. Throughout the 19th century, the Russian Government
sought to suppress repeated attempts at reform and attempts at
liberation by various national movements, particularly under the
reign of Nicholas I (1825-1855). Russia expanded into the rest of the
Caucasus, Central Asia and across Siberia. The Trans-Siberian
Railroad opened vast frontiers to development late in the century. In
the 19th century, Russian culture flourished as Russian artists made
significant contributions to world literature, visual arts, dance, and
music. The names of Dostoyevsky, Tolstoy, Gogol, Repin, and
Tchaikovsky became known to the world.
Alexander II (1855-1881), a relatively liberal tsar, emancipated the
serfs. His 1881 assassination, however, prompted the reactionary
rule of Alexander III (1881-1894). At the turn of the century,
imperial decline became evident. Russia was defeated in the
unpopular Russo-Japanese war in 1905. The Russian Revolution of
1905 forced Tsar Nicholas II (1894-1917) to grant a constitution and
introduce limited democratic reforms.
U.S.S.R.
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The ruinous effects of World War I, combined with internal pressures, sparked the
March 1917 uprising that led Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate the throne. A provisional
government came to power, headed by Aleksandr Kerenskiy. On November 7, 1917,
the Bolshevik Party, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized control and established the
Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Civil war broke out in 1918 between
Lenin's "Red" army and various "White" forces and lasted until 1920, when, despite
foreign interventions and a war with Poland, the Bolsheviks triumphed. After the
Red army conquered Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Armenia, a new
nation, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.), was formed in 1922.
First among its political figures was Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party and head
of the first Soviet Government, who died in 1924. In the late 1920s, Josef Stalin
emerged as General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU)
amidst intra-party rivalries; he maintained complete control over Soviet domestic
and international policy until his death in 1953. In the 1930s, Stalin oversaw the
forced collectivization of tens of millions of its citizens in state agricultural and
industrial enterprises. Millions died in the process. Millions more died in political
purges, the vast penal and labor system, and in state-created famines. Initially
allied to Nazi Germany, which resulted in significant territorial additions on its
western border, the U.S.S.R. was attacked by the Axis on June 22, 1941. Twenty
million Soviet citizens died during World War II in the successful effort to defeat
the Axis, in addition to over two million Soviet Jews who perished in the Holocaust.
After the war, the U.S.S.R. became one of the Permanent Members of the UN
Security Council. In 1949, the U.S.S.R. developed its own nuclear arsenal.
Marx and Engels
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Karl Heinrich Marx -
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Friedrich Engels - was the nineteenth
was a greatly
influential German philosopher, political economist,
and socialist revolutionary
century German political philosopher and Karl
Marx’s co-developer of communist theory.
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Friedrich Engels became the editor and translator of
Marx’s writings
Principal Ideas of Marxism
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Exploitation
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Alienation
Historical Materialism
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Ruling class must exploit the rest of the pop.
Progress occurs as a result of changes in the distribution of
econimic power
Base and Superstructure
Class
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Progress occurs as a result of conflict between the classes
determined by who owns key institutions
– Proletariat
– Bourgeoisie
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Ideology
Political Economy
Marxism
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Society based on inequality = workers
resent their exploitation
– Alienation & class consciousness enhanced by spread of
mass education and political freedoms of liberal
democracy
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Significant political and economic progress
can only occur through Revolution
Transitional Period
Communism
– Aka no need for superstructure because people would no
longer be exploiting each oher
Marxism-Leninism
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also known colloquially as Bolshevism or
simply communism
originally coined by the CPSU in order to
denote the ideology that Vladimir Lenin had
built upon the thought of Karl Marx.
Democratic Centralism
1854-1924
1927-1982
The Role of Stalin
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Took power from other contender’s, like
Trotsky, Zimonev, and Kamenev after
Lenin’s death
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Trotsky’s “left” faction charged that the new
economic Policy (NEP), which was launched
in 1921, was a retreat from Socialism as it
did not allow free enterprise and foreign
investment
By 1929 Stalin’s power over the Soviet
union remained unchallenged
More On Stalin
Stalin believed that he could make a communist state no
matter what
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Stalin and therefore The Soviet Union pushed other
countries to make a communist state. He instituted the
Cominterm, a document made to foment world revolutions
Economically
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In tandem with the radical reconstruction of agriculture,
Stalin sought to greatly expand the industrial capacity
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He devised five year plans that were to boost the
backwardness of the Russian economy. They were
accomplished at great cost to the common people.
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He also instituted mass purges. He eliminated his enemies,
both real and imagined.
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What about Khrushchev?
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Emerged after Stalin’s death
Began a program of De-Stalinization, taking away the
more dangerous programs
In 1954 Khrushchev had shown his determination to be
friendlier and more cooperative with other nations, by
joining the United Nations International Labor
organization (ILO) and the UNESCO (United Nations
Educational scientific and Cultural Organization
Khrushchev even employed the “Secret Speech”, during
which he openly denounced Stalin and his programs
Visited the United States in an effort to instill peace and
harmony. He even invited vice-president Richard Nixon
to come and talk to him in Russia in an effort to end
hostility
Khrushchev cont.
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In 1962 the United States and the Moscow came to a
head over the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Soviets deployed
missiles carrying nuclear warheads to Cuba. Kennedy,
having seen the nuclear sites from the aerial photos,
condemned Russia for supplying the weapons and
ordered that all medium and long-range missiles
entering and residing in Cuba will be dismantled.
Khrushchev offered two letters to Kennedy, both
broaching a compromise. eventually Khrushchev wrote
that he would dismantle the Cuban missiles
The communist governments of Russia and the Chinese
saw this statesmen’s like move as a yield to capitalist
markets, and this as well as a mishandling of some
Sino-Soviet relations led to the fall of Khrushchev
Don’t Forget Brezhnev
Brezhnev
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Having ousted Khrushchev, the Russian state wanted a
stable oligarchy, one that wasn’t as gregarious and
unpredictable as that under Khrushchev
The men that replace Khrushchev quickly dismantled
many of Khrushchev’s programs. They dismantled
Khrushchev’s regional economic councils. Among other
things they reversed the De-Stalinization programs and
curbed public criticism of Stalin
Brezhnev soon gained control of this new nation-state.
In his 18 year reign he turned the country into a military
superpower with client states around the world.
Brezhnev cont.
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His economic policy emphasized defense
production and heavy industry
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Economically, Brezhnev made two “first
priorities” when it came to resources, the
military and agriculture
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Also, he implemented stricter controls on artistic and
ideological controls
He put his ideas out during the twenty-third
Congress
He and a few of top cronies were members of the
Politburo
The economy grew by a meager 2.3 percent every
year.
Foreign policy was continued from
Khrushchev’s peaceful coexistence
Likewise a nuclear test ban treaty was signed
The Fall of the U.S.S.R.
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In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev became the next
(and last) General Secretary of the CPSU.
Gorbachev introduced policies of perestroika
(restructuring) and glasnost (openness). But his
efforts to reform the creaky Communist system
from within failed. The people of the Soviet Union
were not content with half-freedoms granted by
Moscow; they demanded more and the system
collapsed. Boris Yeltsin was elected the first
president of the Russian Federation in 1991.
Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the
Commonwealth of Independent States in
December 1991. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet
President on December 25, 1991. Eleven days
later, the U.S.S.R. was formally dissolved.
1985-1991
The Chechnya
Controversy
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In a dramatic speech in September 1993, President Yeltsin dissolved the Russian
parliament and called for new national elections and a new constitution. In
December 1993, voters elected a new parliament and approved a new constitution
that had been drafted by the Yeltsin government.
In late 1994, the Russian security forces launched a brutal operation in the
Republic of Chechnya against rebels who were intent on separation from Russia.
Along with their opponents, Russian forces committed numerous violations of
human rights. in August 1996 the Russian and Chechen authorities negotiated a
settlement that resulted in a complete withdrawal of Russian troops and the
holding of elections in January 1997. A peace treaty was concluded in May 1997.
Following a number of terrorist incidents blamed on Chechen separatists, the
Russian government launched a new military campaign into Chechnya. By spring
2000, federal forces claimed control over Chechen territory, but fighting continues
as rebel fighters regularly ambush Russian forces in the region.
Throughout 2002 and 2003, the ability of Chechen separatists to battle the Russian
forces waned but they claimed responsibility for numerous terrorist acts. In 2005
and 2006, key separatist leaders were killed by Russian forces. The situation
stabilized after Ramzan Kadyrov was confirmed as Chechen President. In April
2009, the Russian Government announced the end of counter-terrorism operations
in Chechnya; however, small-scale fighting continues between rebel forces and
local law enforcement.
1991-2000
Russia in Recent Years
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On December 31, 1999 Boris Yeltsin resigned, and Vladimir Putin was named
Acting President. In March 2000, he won election in his own right as Russia's
second president with 53% of the vote. Putin moved quickly to reassert Moscow's
control over the regions, whose governors had confidently ignored edicts from
Boris Yeltsin. He sent his own "plenipotentiary representatives" (commonly called
‘polpred' in Russian) to ensure that Moscow's policies were followed in recalcitrant
regions and republics. He won enactment of liberal economic reforms that rescued
a faltering economy and stopped a spiral of hyperinflation. Putin achieved wide
popularity by stabilizing the government, especially in marked contrast to what
many Russians saw as the chaos of the latter Yeltsin years.
The economy grew both because of rising oil prices and in part because Putin was
able to achieve reforms in banking, labor, and private property. During this time,
Russia also moved closer to the U.S., especially after the terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001. In 2002, the NATO-Russia Council was established, giving
Russia a voice in NATO discussions. However, U.S.-Russian relations cooled over
the ensuing years given concerns over domestic developments in Russia, including
political freedoms and human rights, as well as over foreign policy differences.
Dmitriy Medvedev was elected President In March 2008 and inaugurated in May.
Relations during the first few months of his presidency were affected by the August
2008 Russia-Georgia war and subsequent decision by Russia to recognize the
territories of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. As a result, U.S.-Russian contact
decreased significantly and the NATO-Russia Council was suspended temporarily.
With the change of U.S. administration in January 2009, U.S.-Russian relations
have improved as both sides seek to change the tone of the relationship and to
cooperate in areas of mutual interest.
Tsar Nicholas II
1894 -1917
Vladimir Lenin
1917 - 1924
Josef Stalin
1924 - 1953
Leon Trotsky
Nikita Khrushchev
1953 -1964
Leonid Brezhnev
1964 - 1982
Mikhail Gorbachev
1985 - 1991
Ramzan Kadyrov
2007-
Boris Yeltsin
1991 -1999
Vladimir Putin
1999 - 2008
Dmitriy Medvedev
2008 -
Sovereignty,
Authority and
Power
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Sovereignty – having supreme rank,
power, or authority
Authority - the power to determine,
adjudicate, or otherwise settle issues
or disputes
Power - political or national strength;
great or marked ability to do or act
Sources of Power
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Governance - exercising management power
and policy by the government
Political power – the type of power held by
the government which allows administration
of some or all of public resources
Authority - refers to a claim of legitimacy,
the justification and right to exercise that
power
"We must create a tradition of
constitutional transition of power and
demonstrate to the country and the
world that it is possible in Russia and
that this is not a catastrophe, but on
the contrary, our state is in some ways
becoming stronger.”
V. V. Putin
Subdivisions
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The Russian Federation consists of 83 subjects
– Each has 2 delegates represented in the Federation Council
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21 republics autonomous, each has its own constitution,
president and parliament; home to a specific ethnic minority
46 oblasts most common, regular administrative units with
federally appointed governor and locally elected legislature.
9 krais extremely similar to oblasts
1 autonomous oblasts
4 autonomous okrugs more autonomous than oblasts but less
than republics; usually with substantial or predominant ethnic
minority
2 federal cities major cities that function as separate regions.
Declaration on State
Sovereignty of the RSFSR
Began the constitutional reform in the Russian
Federation in 1990
 Adopted by the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist
Republic, signed by Chairman Boris Yeltsin
It declared:
 The importance of the Constitution on the
legislation
 Equality before the law
 The idea of separation of powers
 Federalism - expanding the rights of the
autonomous republics, regions, districts, territories
of Russia
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Issues with Sovereignty in
Russia
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The more liberal post-Soviet atmosphere allows more freedom
of opinion
Therefore, minorities were speaking out…
– Some wanted union between peoples on both sides of an
internal or international border arbitrarily drawn by the tsars or
by Soviet authorities
– People can express their anger over Soviet political and economic
subjugation and Russification campaigns
– Non-Russian nationalities that were exploited for their resources
for the benefit of Moscow want to be compensated
– The perceived failure to provide support and protection of native
schools and cultures by the government
– The Russian government's monopolization and censorship of the
news media acquainted minority groups with political trends,
such as the spread of nationalism
Political Culture
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Although the process of choosing a leader
has been democratized, the process of
governance remains a hybrid of Soviet and
Western practices.
According to many analysts, the long-term
well-being of Russia's political system will be
determined by the next generation of
political figures, who will not be schooled on
Soviet-style power politics.
Regime Types
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Socialist state – also referred to as a
workers' state and in Marxist terms is
defined as a state that has abolished
capitalism and is moving towards
communism
Federation - type of sovereign state
characterized by a union of partially selfgoverning states or regions united by a
central government.
Legitimacy
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The people must accept the right of the
authority figures to rule over them for a
nation to be successful
The new democratic Russian Federation has
been difficult to adapt to based on
expectations citizens had of the post-Soviet
Russian state, including public order,
economic security, welfare guarantees, and
checks on social inequality
Russian
Political
Institutions
The System of Government
– Federation consists of 21 autonomous republics, 49 oblasts,
10 autonomous okrugs, and 1 autonomous oblast
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Autonomous republics are corresponding to ethnic enclaves
within Russia
Oblasts are similar to provinces and are headed by governors,
– traditionally selected through local elections
– since 2004, governors are appointed by president
Municipal and oblast legislatures are unicameral bodies
Local and National Relations
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Some parts have feudal roots, others are from the
expansion of the Russian state 300-400 years ago, or
remnants of Soviet attempts to recognize local ethnic
groups
Each subdivision has a unique status in relation to the
Russian government
Some have become personalized “kingdoms” of local
leaders
Sometimes criminal bosses run many local areas
– Led Putin to pass laws to reduce the power of the
Federal Council and create 7 federal districts
Presidentially appointed governors head the new districts
Russian president is now allowed to remove local leaders
if they are not following national law
In 2005, local legislatures were given the power to
nominate candidates for these appointments
Russia’s Constitution
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The Beginning of a Constitution
– As a result of the 1993 political collapse of the Soviet Union and
growing economic crisis:
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Yeltsin dissolved the legislature and called for new elections
He proposed a referendum on a new constitution to following the new
elections
Constitution:
– a post-Soviet constitution, which was approved in a referendum held 12
December 1993
– Constitutional democracy with 3 branches of government- executive, legislative
and judicial
– Recognizes a separation of powers
– Describes the purposes of government
– Outlines the rights and responsibilities of citizens
– Defines the structure of public institutions
– Establishes review of judicial legislation
Realities of the Russian
Government
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In the political system established by the 1993
constitution, the president wields considerable executive
power. There is no vice president, and the legislative
branch is far weaker than the executive.
Basic liberties are not guaranteed
Country still under influence of the Nomenklatura
system
– Nomenklatura- If your file favorable enough your name
was place on a nomenklatura list. It was the Soviet system
of lists that facilitated the CPSU’s appointment of trusted
people to key positions. Adopted by other communist
regimes
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People running the institutions in Russia today are
products of this system.
Executive Branch
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The executive branch of the presidential administration consisted
of three bodies:
– Administration of the President- generally responsible for
domestic political issues
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prepares the president's bills for submission to the State Duma.
coordinates all of the president's interactions with various political parties and
leaders, NGOs, nonprofit organizations, unions, and foreign governments.
– Government- usually in charge of economic development,
– Security Council of the Russian Federation - chiefly responsible
for the foreign policy, security and defense of the country.
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The Security Council is responsible for national security,
Security Council also advises the president on security issues.
– The responsibilities of the three centers in the executive branch
often overlap.
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Bureaucrats, not politicians, run most of these ministries
Many bureaucrats are holdovers from the Soviet Regime and got
their positions through the nomenklatura/ patriot-client process
Executive Branch
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Current President: Dmitriy Medvedev
– heads the Executive Branch—currently the president is the Head
of State and the Supreme Commander in Chief of the Armed
Forces.
– was elected to a four-year term as President on March 2, 2008
– constitution does not allow presidents to serve more than two
consecutive terms
– During his presidency, Putin shifted the balance of power within
the Executive Branch, to the President’s Administration
Prime Minister: Vladimir Putin
Executive Branch
• Powers of the President:
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the president drafts and issues legal regulations
settles disputes
ensures that the constitution is observed
responsible for ensuring the state's mechanisms for protecting and
respecting citizen‘s rights and liberties.
– appoints the cabinet and other top government posts
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The legislative power to reject the president’s nominee is limited
If the Duma rejects the president’s choice three times, he can
dissolve the Duma and call for new elections
Can veto acts passed by the legislature
The president can issue decrees that have the force of law unless
countermanded by the Duma and can declare a state of emergency
There are provisions for impeachment, but it is extremely difficult to
do so
Legislative Branch
Upper house- Federal Council Lower house- State Duma
(Soviet Federatsii)
(Gosudarstvennaya Duma)
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Represents the local governments.
178 seats; two for each of the 89 units
Has little power, except to delay
legislation.
responsibility is to confirm justices of
the Constitutional court, Supreme
Court, and Superior Court of
Arbitration.
Members are also local officials,thus
have little time to do their legislative
duties.
jurisdiction over issues affecting the
provinces, including border changes
and the use of force within Russia.
handles the bills dealing with finance
and treaty ratifications.
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450 seats
Does not have much real power.
Cannot force the executive to enforce
laws it passes and it has limited
influence over the budget.
In theory it has to approve presidential
appointments, but the president finds
ways around this requirement.
Duma can reject the president’s
candidate for the prime minister, but if
it is done 3 times, the president can
dissolve the Duma and call for new
elections
handles all other bills
Judiciary Branch

Three Branches:
1st High Court of
Arbitration & the
Constitutional Court


19 members are
appointed by the
president and approved
by the Federation
Council.
arbitrates any disputes
between the executive
and legislative branches
and determines
questions pertaining to
constitutional issues
2nd Supreme Court

commercial court system
- final court of appeal in
criminal, civil, and
administrative cases
3rd General Jurisdiction
Courts


Judges are named by the
president and the heads of
the two bodies of
parliament
There is a difficulty in
retraining the entire legal
profession and/or recruiting
a new generation of
attorneys
Military Influence




With the collapse of the original Soviet Union in
1992, Russia established a separate Ministry of
Defense and military establishment upon the
wreckage of the Soviet armed forces
Under the Soviet regime, the military was not
actively involved in politics, but simply received
funding for its exploits.
This has largely been true in post-Communist
Russia as well
Many worry that the military might not stay out of
politics in the future
Bureaucracy
• Bureaucracy- a formal, hierarchical organization with many levels in
which tasks, responsibilities, and authority are delegated among
individuals, offices, or departments, held together by a central
administration.
• Under Stalin everything was decided in the centralized state
bureaucracy's interests
 After the fall of the Soviet era, Yeltsin ‘s “perestroika" (rebuilding)
intended to reduce the bureaucracy’s waste and mismanagement
 He wished to remove the bureaucratic officials from the old
Communist system, but could not because the country lacked the
trained personnel to take their place
 Putin wanted to dramatically curb bureaucracy
Political Parties




Political parties are vehicles for
individual leaders, rather than
political ideals
– (ex: United Russia and
Putin)
Between elections, most parties
are invisible
However, in every election,
ambitious politicians organize
new parties
– Exception- the Communist
Party
Party politics are in a formative,
ever-changing stage




In the Duma, politicians appeal
to popular dissatisfactions by
criticizing the government
Parties that campaign for a
state controlled economy and
more secure social welfare
system– like the Communist Party
Ultranationalist parties like
Liberal Democrats promise
glory and power for Russia as
in the old days
Personalized parties are the
most successful
• After one-party soviet rule
many Russians hesitated to
join political organizations
United Russia
Communist Party
Liberal Democratic Party
Elections
The first opportunity to vote in a reasonably free
election- referendum occurred in 1993
Presidential Elections
Two Ballot System
– Any number of candidates
can run on the first ballot
– If no one wins the majority
on the first round, the top
two have a runoff two
weeks later
Duma Elections
Half elected by
proportional representation
– Parties must win 5% of the
vote nationwide
Half
in single member
districts
– Whoever wins the most
votes in a district wins the
seat
Interest Groups
– Pluralism- acknowledges the diversity of interests, wants
members of society to accommodate their differences and
engage in good-faith negotiation.
– Corporatist- power is given to civic assemblies that represent
economic, industrial, agrarian, social, cultural, and professional
groups. These civic assemblies are known as corporations.
 Legislators are usually influenced by the interests of business
enterprises, employers' organizations, and industry trade
groups.
 In Russia security/intelligence, political, economic,
informational and finance is being monopolized in the hands
of Corporation members
– Single party system- a single political party forms the
government and no other parties are permitted to run candidates
for election.
 During Soviet era, there was only the Communist Party
Other Players



Regional and business leaders
have been key players in postSoviet Russia
Corruption of the rule of law,
the lack of institutionalization of
the rules of power, and the
military threaten political
stability
Links among mafia, corrupt
bureaucrats, former red
directors (Soviet-era managers
of state enterprises), and
private bankers helped drain
capital into pockets of a select
few

The oligarchs, a powerful
group of seven businessmen
who had made personal
fortunes from privatization
deals, also influenced postSoviet Russia
– Boris Berezovsky declared
in 1997 that he and six
other businessmen
controlled over half of
Russia’s GNP
– Much wealth is gained
through shady deals
– Much of the wealth is sent
abroad
– Putin has had a bumpy
relationship with them
Political and
Economic
Change
The Russian Economy


In 1917 the Soviet Union was
established along with its “war
economy”
This economy was watched by the
Supreme Economic Committee and the
Economic Council
Economy Cont’d



Lenin began a new economic policy because
he saw that the wartime economy would not
hold forever
Under this plan the currency was changed
and many farmers had their goods returned
to them after their seizure
There were three five year plans which were
launched from 1928, 1933, and 1938
however the third was interrupted by
German invasion
Economy Cont’d



After the invasion many enterprises
were destroyed and the government
controlled finances to combat wartime
inflation
In 1946 the fourth five year plan was
started.
Once Khrushchev came into power he
ended those plans and created a
seven year plan
Economy Cont’d



Brezhnev criticized Khrushchev for his plans
and made the rebirth of the five year plans
and created two
Perestroika came in and tried to attack the
food supply in 1982 with a food program
but the damage had been done
A twelfth five year plan was created in 1990
but the soviet union deteriorated more and
the Soviet Union collapsed in 1992
Political Change



Russia was a communist state until the
collapse of the Soviet Union and now
the first opportunity to vote came in
1993
There was about a 50% participation
rate
In presidential races there is a two
ballot system
Citizens,
Society, and
State
Cleavages and Divisions
1.
Ethnicity
–
–
–
More than 100 national minorities that coexist
uneasily with politically and numerically
predominant Russians
82% of the population is Slavs (Russians,
Ukrainians, and Belarusians)
3 other main ethnic groups that make up the
minorities include:



Altaic group
Uralic group
Caucasus group


Leaders of different republics/minorities have
pressed the central government to grant
measures of autonomy to indigenous groups
Many republics want independence
– Trade benefits with Russian government
induce them to stay
– Chechnya- Mostly Muslim region, very strong
independence movement
 If they succeed, others will try to break
away too
2. Religion
– Russia’s main religion is Russian Orthodox
– Others: Judaism, Muslim, and Roman Catholic
– Mostly nonreligious because religion was
prohibited by communism
– Since the regime is new and political parties
are uncertain, there are no clear patterns that
have emerged that indicate political attitudes
of religious vs. nonreligious citizens
Civil Society



Historically- never has had a working civil
society
Efforts since 1990s made to establish a civil
society similar to the Americas
Recent history- Citizens want to make a
difference through non-profit organizations
to improve their civil society
– feel Putin is establishing roadblocks

Recent articles about Russia’s society claim
Russia has a “managed democracy” in which
Putin controls the laws and constitution by
manipulating the laws to benefit himself and
business owners, while diminishing the nonprofit organizations that are established

“Managed Democracy”
- Citizens are gradually restricted from the
decision-making processes which may
have direct impacts on their interests and
society is deprived of opportunity to
control governmental activities
-Consequently- governments do not serve
the public interest and are not controlled
by the public

Russia Civil Society Support Program (CSSP)
- 4 year USAID funded initiative aimed at
strengthening the nongovernmental (NGO)
sector in Russia
-Promotes environment where the government
actively reaches out to involve NGOs in policy
development, in turn, NGOs demonstrate skills
and capacity to advocate their positions in a
constructive manner
Media


Soviet Era
– Media under full state control
– Major newspapers: Pravada, Izvestiya,
Krasnaya, Zvezda
 “official organs” of party and government
agencies
Post Soviet Era
– Played central role in forming public opinion
toward critical national concerns
 Such as: Chechnya conflict, economic crisis,
and government polices
 Effect?
–Public figures (Boris Yeltson) and
government actions received
ruthless criticisms
–Deterioration of environment,
public health, national defense, and
national economy has been
thoroughly exposed
– Accuracy
 Quality of Russian Journalism is low
 Journalists do not verify sources fully or are
denied access to relevant individuals
 Most newspapers make no clear distinction
between objective reports and editorials
 Government exerts heavy pressure on
media to alter coverage on certain issues
–Mostly effective because media relies on
government for support
Political Participation


Participation levels are low, however, some
citizens are active
Citizens did actually vote during Soviet rule
in the 20thc
– Close to 100%
– Serious consequences if did not vote
– Elections not competitive- voted for
handpicked candidates by Communist
leaders



Since 1991 Elections- Voter turnout increased
– Higher than U.S., lower than Britain and
France
Voting rate has decreased since first democratic
election
Lack of national pride since the fall of the Soviet
Union
– Before = twin super power to the U.S.
– Now = struggling

It has been claimed: “ ‘true’ democracy has not
yet taken hold in Russia because the people
themselves are ‘co-conspirators’ in the rejection
of democratic values and practices”
– Because of historical experience, they do not
posses the understanding of democratic
practices
– The traditional view of Soviet society
incorporated “enforced departicipation”
Social Movements

“Nashi” (Ours) Movement
(2005)
– Purported purpose is
to combat fascism, but
in reality it focuses on
idolizing the Prime
Minister and gaining
support for the United
Russia Party during
the 2007/2008
elections
– 10,000 strong
– Pro-Putin
– Special army
exclusively for Nashi
– Since Putin won
election, not as
important to him
anymore
Public Policy
Public Policy in Russia



Some of the main policy issues in Russia are foreign
policy, human rights issues, and terrorism.
Although the government has recognized the legitimacy
of international human rights standards, the
institutionalization of procedures to safeguard these
rights has lagged. There are, however, some indications
that the law is becoming an increasingly important tool
for those seeking to protect human rights.
Lengthy pretrial detention remains a serious problem.
Russia has one of the highest prison population rates in
the world, at 632 per 100,000. There are credible
reports of beating and torture of inmates and detainees
by law enforcement and correctional officials, and
brutality perpetrated by the prisoners themselves, some
of whom are informally granted authority to enforce
order within the prisons.
Chechen Terrorism

In the North Caucasus, there have been
credible allegations of violations of
international human rights and
humanitarian law committed by Russian
and pro-Moscow Chechen forces. Rebels
also have committed abuses and acts of
terrorism. Although the number of
kidnappings and disappearances
committed by government and rebel
forces markedly declined in Chechnya in
2007 and 2008, similar incidents have
been reported in neighboring Ingushetiya
and Dagestan.
Beslan School Hostage
Crisis




1,200 school children taken hostage
by Chechen rebels on September 1,
2004
334 civilians killed
Putin changed local elections so he
appointed local officials and had them
approved by the Duma
Critics were suspicious of Putin’s
attempts to increase his power
Poverty Problems




Originally benefits such as free
transportation, medicine, and utilities
for poor
Putin switches to cash handouts for
poor- decreases popularity
Large pension fund- increasing
Pensions for caring for children
Freedom of Speech?

The constitution provides for freedom of speech and of
the press; however, in practice government pressure on
the media persists, resulting in numerous infringements
of these rights. The government uses direct ownership
or ownership by large private companies with links to
the government to control or influence the major media
outlets, especially television, through direct control and
through self-censorship by editors and journalists. The
government uses its controlling ownership in major
national television and radio stations, as well as the
majority of influential regional ones, to restrict access to
information about issues deemed sensitive, including
coverage of opposition political parties and movements.
Unsolved murders of journalists, including the murder of
respected investigative reporter Anna Politkovskaya in
October 2006, have caused significant international
concern and increased the reluctance of journalists to
cover controversial subjects.
Economic Policy




Two groups: Reformers wanted immediate change,
“shock therapy”, conservatives wanted slower approach
Yeltsin started to emphasize privatiziation in 1991-1992
The Russian economy underwent tremendous stress in
the 1990s as it moved from a centrally planned economy
to a free market system. Difficulties in implementing
fiscal reforms aimed at raising government revenues and
a dependence on short-term borrowing to finance
budget deficits led to a serious financial crisis in 1998.
The global economic crisis hit Russia hard, starting with
heavy capital flight in September 2008, which caused a
crisis in its stock market. Several high-profile business
disputes earlier in 2008 such as as the Georgian war
helped drive capital out of Russia.
Economic Policy cont.

The CBR intervened to keep the ruble stable
during times of volatile international
commodity prices and to manage inflation. In
years of record high oil prices, the Central
Bank typically purchased dollars to prevent
real appreciation of the ruble. These
interventions initially had limited effect on
inflation, as they were mostly sterilized by
budget surpluses and demand for rubles grew
in a robust era of economic growth. By 2007,
fiscal policy and the balance of payments
were the actual drivers of monetary policy,
particularly as large capital inflows due to
increased borrowing by Russian banks and
corporations caused the money supply to
swell and added to inflationary pressures.
Trade in Russia


Russia is currently the 28th-largest export market for
U.S. goods. Russian exports to the U.S. were fuel oil,
inorganic chemicals, aluminum, and precious stones.
U.S. exports to Russia were machinery, vehicles, meat
(mostly poultry), aircraft, electrical equipment, and
high-tech products.
Russia is in the process of negotiating terms of
accession to the World Trade Organization (WTO).
The U.S. and Russia concluded a bilateral WTO
accession agreement in late 2006, and negotiations
continue on meeting WTO requirements for
accession. Russia reports that it has yet to conclude a
bilateral agreement with Georgia.
Foreign Policy


In the years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Russia
took important steps to become a full partner in the world's
principal political groupings. On December 27, 1991, Russia
assumed the permanent UN Security Council seat formerly
held by the Soviet Union. Russia also is a member of the
Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE)
and the Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council (EAPC). Russia and
the European Union (EU) signed a Partnership and
Cooperation Agreement. It signed the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) Partnership for Peace initiative in 1994.
The NATO-Russia Founding Act established the Permanent
Joint Council (PJC) in 1997, with the NATO-Russia Council
superseding the PJC in 2002.
Russia, despite misgivings, did not actively oppose
enlargement of NATO by members of the former Warsaw Pact
and the Baltic states, which had been forcibly integrated into
the Soviet Union. However, Russia has recently stressed its
strong opposition to the membership aspirations of Ukraine
and Georgia.
U.S./Russian Relations



The United States and Russia share common interests on a broad range of issues,
including counterterrorism and the drastic reduction of our strategic arsenals. Russia
shares our basic goal of stemming the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and
the means to deliver them. The Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) program, launched
in 1992 to facilitate dismantlement of weapons of mass destruction in the former Soviet
Union, was renewed in 2006 until 2013. At the 2006 G8 Summit in St. Petersburg, the
U.S. and Russia announced the Global Initiative to Combat Nuclear Terrorism to keep
terrorists from acquiring nuclear materials.
We are working with Russia to bring Iran's nuclear programs into compliance with
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) rules and United Nations Security Council
Resolutions 1737, 1747, and 1803. On North Korea, Russia is a participant in the SixParty Talks aimed at the verifiable denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula. Russia also
takes part in the Middle East Peace Process "Quartet" (along with the UN and the EU).
Russia now interacts with NATO members as an equal through the NATO-Russia Council
but without veto power over NATO decisions. During the past several years,
Russia has intensified its efforts to combat trafficking in persons. We are cooperating in
the fight against HIV/AIDS. Despite this cooperation, there remain areas in which the
U.S. and Russia disagree, including over Moscow’s recognition of the independence of
South Ossetia and Abkhazia and assertion of “privileged interests” in Eurasia. The Obama
administration is seeking ways to improve our bilateral relations and enhance
cooperation by focusing on areas of mutual interest, while managing areas of
disagreement.
Post 9/11 Era

September 11th moved Russia and the
U.S. closer together
– Al-Qaeda had worked alongside Chechen
rebels
A Few Other Issues….


As of the end of 2008, there were 461,754 HIV cases
officially registered in Russia, though experts believe the
actual number may be as many as 1 million HIV cases.
The government currently spends over $250 million per
year on HIV/AIDS treatment programs and has allocated
over $42 million for the period of 2007-2010 to support
HIV/AIDS vaccine research.
Russia has a body of conflicting, overlapping and rapidly
changing laws, decrees and regulations, which has
resulted in an ad hoc and unpredictable approach to
doing business. Regional and local courts are often
subject to political pressure, and corruption is
widespread. Russia's World Trade Organization (WTO)
accession process is also helping to bring the country's
legal and regulatory regime in line with internationally
accepted practices.
New Defense Policies



The Russian Government has stated a desire to convert to a
professional army, but implementation has been progressing slowly.
In an effort to make military service more attractive, the tour of duty
for conscripts was reduced to one year (from 18 months) beginning
in 2008, and the military is offering increased pay and benefits to
raise the number of professional servicemen.
Despite recent increases in the budget, however, defense spending is
still unable to sustain Russia's oversized military. Current troop
strength, estimated at 1.1 million, is large in comparison to Russia's
GDP and military budget, which continues to make the process of
transformation to a professional army difficult. This is the result of
the Soviet legacy and military thinking that has changed little since
the Cold War. Senior Russian leaders continue to emphasize a
reliance on a large strategic nuclear force capable of deterring a
massive nuclear attack.
Russia's efforts to transform its Soviet-legacy military into a smaller,
lighter, and more mobile force continue to be hampered by an
ossified military leadership, discipline problems and human rights
violations, limited funding, and demographics.
Russia in the Media


After Gorbachev came to power,
everyone began to say anything and
everything that was on their mind
Starting in 1991, media passed into
private hands
– Two leading networks run by Berezovsky
and Gusinsky
Television is the main influence
Fewer than 5% population on Internet
Review Questions:
To True
see
if
you
were
paying
attention
or False

–





The 1993 Russian Constitution established 3 branches of government that are
similar to that of the United States
Which party does Boris Yeltsin a member of?
– Liberal Democratic Party
– United Russia
– Agrarian Party of Russia
– The Communist Party
How many consecutive terms is the president allowed to serve?
– 1
– 2
– 3
– 4
True or False
– Russia has reached the full stage of democracy
True or False
– Boris Yeltsin is effectively promoting civil society and is ineffectively promoting
democracy
Which of the following make up Russia’s ethnic minorities
– Altaic group
– Slavs
– Uralic group