Crime Victims: An Introduction to
Victimology
Sixth Edition
By Andrew Karmen
Chapter Four:
Violent Crimes: Murders and
Robberies
Using UCR to Analyze Murders
 Data comes from Supplemental Homicide Report
(SHR)—age, sex, race of victim and age, sex,
race, motive, weapon and relationship of accused
 Homicide—Killing of one human being by
another—Accidents, carelessness, suicides are
NOT homicides
 Justifiable Homicide—use of deadly force in self
defense
Using UCR to Analyze Murders
 Capital Offenses (Death Penalty)—
Premeditation, intent, killing certain
people—state based law
 Heat of Passion—results in second degree
murder, manslaughter—voluntary or
involuntary
Using UCR to Analyze Murders
 Profile or Statistical Portrait (2004)
– Most Murders—Male on Male
– 90% of Female Murders by Males
– Most Murders Not Interracial—intraracial
– 49% Victims were white
– 48% Victims were black
– Majority killed by use of firearms
Using UCR to Analyze Murders
 Relationships in Homicides (1990-2001)
–
–
–
–
–
Family—12-14%
Friend or Acquaintance—29-38%
Strangers—13-15%
Unknown or unsolved—35-45%
Victims killed by complete strangers most likely charged
with most serious of charges—Capital Homicide
– Those killed during an argument or by an
acquaintance—less harsh charges
Searching for Crime Waves
 Trends refer to changes that occur over long
period of time—not just one year
Homicide Rate Trends—1900-2004: See
Figure 4.1, Page 64
Aggravated Assault Rate Trends important to
review as involve attacks or threats with
deadly weapon—Figure 4.2, Page 65
Searching for Crime Waves
 Trends in Robbery Rates—Figure 4.3, Page
67
 Conclusion of Violent Crime Rates
– Dramatically decreased from early 90s
– Interpersonal violence NOT out of control
– Future is unsure
– Victims of interpersonal violence not growing as
rapidly as 60s-80s
Robberies Turn Into Homicides?
 Your Money or Your Life
– Table 4.1, Page 68 reflects murders where
robbery was motive—decreased 4% from 1980
to 2004
– 1/5 of 1% of those accosted are murdered
– When armed offender declares, “Your money or
your life”—statistics say, give him the money
Differential Risks
 How frequently murders, rapes, robberies,
and assaults are committed against
“average Americans,” and how often “typical
households” suffer burglaries and motor
vehicle thefts
Differential Risks
 Differential Risks of being Murdered in U.S.
in 2004 was 5.5 per 100,000
 Murder rates vary by geographical location
– Highest in South and lowest in Northeast
 Murder Rates by U.S. Cities: Figure 4.4,
Page 70
Murder Rate Data—2004






More than ¾ are males
Ten years of age, least likely
25 years of age, most likely
African Americans most likely
Asian Americans least likely
Profile (Greatest Risk)—southerners, urban
males, age 18-24 and African American
International Comparisons
 Two Main Sources of Data
1. United Nations
World Health Organization (WHO)—Tracks
Homicides and Sets Standards for Reporting
2. International Police Organization
(INTERPOL)
Provides Data—See Table 4.2, Page 72
Assessing Comparative Risks
Criminal Event vs. Accident/Illness—
See Table 4.4, Page 74
Conclusions:
1. Leading causes of death—heart disease,
cancer, and stroke
2. More died from accidents than homicides
3. More people took their own life than lost
life through lethal violence
Robberies
 Robbery combines stealing with extortion or
outright violence
 Completed Robberies—face-to-face
confrontations in which perpetrators take
something of value directly from victims
against their will by either force or by threats
of violence
Robberies
 Five stages of typical robbery
– 1. Planning
– 2. Establishing co-presence
– 3. Developing co-orientation
– 4. Transferring valuables
– 5. Leaving
Using NCVS to Analyze Robberies
 More information available about victims and the
events using NCVS
–
–
–
–
–
–
Primary motive is theft—38% of attempts unsuccessful
62% complete strangers
50% assailants unarmed
38% likely to be wounded—1 of 8 seriously
88% of victims attempted to resist
Forceful resistance reduced monetary loss but
increased likelihood of more severe injury
– Differential risks noted in Table 4.5, Page 79
Projecting Cumulative Risks
 Annual crime rates represent the “rare
events” of crime to Americans
 Cumulative risks represent the likelihood of
occurrence over a lifetime or 60 years
– At least one theft but more likely 3 or more
– 8% of females raped—Black females 11%
– 30% robbed
See Table 4.6, Page 82
Determinants of Differential Risks
 Attractiveness
 Proximity
 Vulnerability
– Routine Activities—interactions of three
variables described above
– Lifestyle—how and where people spend their
time and money at work and leisure
– Deviant place factor—exact locations where
predators prowl for victims—Hot Spots
Reducing Risks: How Safe is Safe
Enough?
 Balance between safety and risk is a
personal decision—a value judgment
 Cost-Benefit vs. Risk-Benefit Analysis
 Ambivalence about risk-taking in U.S.
From Crime Prevention to
Victimization Prevention
 Risk Reduction Activities
– Avoidance strategies—actions taken to limit
exposure to dangerous persons and frightening
situations—don’t walk alone, carry a weapon
– Target Hardening—using locks, fences,
surveillance systems, using lights, trimming
down bushes
– Crime Conscious—personal responsibility to
keep out of trouble
From Crime Prevention to
Victimization Prevention
 Valve Theory of Crime Shifts—predicts that
target hardening strategies will not reduce
criminal events, only displace them to other
locations
 May decrease victimization rates for some
while increasing victimization rates for
others
Criminals as Victims
 Equivalent Group Explanations
– Theory postulates that offenders select their
victims from their own circles of adversaries,
acquaintances, and even former friends
– Victims who engage in certain high-risk deviant
lifestyles viewed in a less-than-sympathetic light
 Drug scene deaths
 Drive-by shootings
 Binge drinking situations
Deterrence Theory Applied to
Victims
 Classical School of Free Will or Rational Choice
Theory notes would-be offenders deterred by
prospects of apprehension, conviction, and
punishment
 Does this same theory apply to victims?
 Do 1st time victims learn their lesson?
 More Research is needed to answer
Terms
Differential Rates,
Risks
Cumulative Risks
Comparative Rates
International Compare
SHR, Homicide,
Robbery, Strong Arm,
Muggings, Yokings
Co-Presence,
Co-orientation
Exit, Carjacking
Likelihood or
probability
Attractiveness,
Routine Activities,
Proximity, Vulnerability lifestyle, deviant place,
hot spots, exposure
Cost-benefit analysis
Risk-benefit analysis
Risk Reduction
activities
Avoidance strategies
Risk Management
Crime prevention,
Crime Control
Victimization
prevention
Valve theory of crime
shifts
Equivalent group
explanation
Character contest
Classical school of
free will
Rational choice theory