Intelligence
Intelligence
• Exactly what makes up intelligence is a matter
of debate
• David Wechsler’s Definition
– Act purposefully
– Think rationally
– Deal effectively with the environment
Theories of Intelligence
Early Theories of Intelligence
• Charles Spearman
– Believed intelligence is general
– People who are bright in one area are usually
bright in other areas as well
• L. L. Thurstone
– Believed that intelligence is made up of seven
distinct, independent abilities
• Spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability,
verbal meaning, memory, word fluency, and reasoning
Early Theories of Intelligence
• R. B. Cattell
– Identified two clusters of mental abilities
• Crystallized intelligence includes abilities such as
reasoning and verbal skills
• Fluid intelligence includes skills such as spatial and
visual imagery, rote memory, and the ability to notice
visual details
– While education can increase crystallized
intelligence, it was not thought to have any effect
on fluid intelligence
Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
• Robert Sternberg
– Triarchic theory of intelligence posits three types of
intelligence (prototype of 3 grad school applicants)
– Analytical intelligence includes the ability to learn how to
do things, solve problems, and acquire new knowledge
(Alice)
– Creative intelligence includes the ability adjust to new
tasks, use new concepts, and respond well in new
situations (Barbara)
– Practical intelligence includes the ability to select contexts
in which you can excel and solve practical problems (Celia)
Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
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Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple
intelligences
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Logical-mathematical
Linguistic
Spatial
Musical
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Bodily-kinesthetic
Interpersonal
Intrapersonal
Naturalistic
Contemporary Theories of Intelligence
• Daniel Goleman
– Proposed theory of emotional Intelligence
– Emotional intelligence has five components
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Knowing one’s own emotions
Managing one’s own emotions
Using emotions to motivate oneself
Recognizing the emotions of other people
Managing relationships
Comparing Contemporary Theories
Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences
Sternberg’s Triarchic
Intelligences
Logical-Mathematical
Linguistic
Analytical
Spatial
Musical
Body-Kinesthetic
Creative
Interpersonal
Practical
Intrapersonal
Goleman’s Emotional
Intelligence
Recognizing emotions in
others and managing
relationships
Knowing, managing, and
motivating yourself with
emotions
Intelligence Tests
• Binet-Simon scale
– First test of intelligence, developed to identify children
who might have difficulty in school
– Binet developed the concept of mental age in children
– Mental Age = age at which you perform intellectually may or may not correspond with chronological age
• Stanford-Binet scale
– L. M. Terman’s adaptation of the Binet-Simon scale
– Terman introduced the I.Q. score
Intelligence Tests
• Stanford-Binet measures four kinds of mental
abilities
– Verbal reasoning
– Abstract/visual reasoning
– Quantitative reasoning
– Short-term memory
Intelligence Tests
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
– The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale – Third
Edition is the most commonly used test of
intelligence for adults
– WAIS-III is divided into to parts, one that focuses
on verbal abilities and one that focuses on
performance skills
– Also a version for children, Wechsler Intelligence
Scale for Children – Third Edition
Intelligence Tests
• Group Tests
– Intelligence tests that can be given to large groups
– Advantages
• Quick scoring
• No examiner bias
• Easier to establish norms
– Disadvantages
• Less likely to detect someone who is ill or confused
• Might make people nervous
• Learning disabled children often perform worse
Intelligence Tests
• Performance tests
– Tests that minimize the use of language
– Used to test very young children or people with
retardation
– Also can be used to test those unfamiliar with
English
• Culture-fair tests
– Tests designed to reduce cultural bias
– Minimize skills and values that vary from one
culture to another
What Makes a Good Test?
• Reliability
– Ability of a test to provide consistent and stable
scores
• Validity
– Ability of a test to measure what it was designed
to measure
What Makes a Good Test?
• Standardization uniform rules for administering,
taking and scoring the test.
– Norms – performance benchmarks established during test
development used to establish “average” performance.
– Representative Sample – group used to establish norms
that adequately reflects the demographics of those who
will be taking the test.
Scoring the IQ Test
• Raw Score – number of questions answered correctly; doesn’t tell much
about performance
• Standard Score – score that tells you how you did compared to other test takers
– a much better read of performance
• Percentile Score – what percentage of test takers you scored better than
• What does it mean to score in the 85th percentile?
– You scored better than 85% of the test takers
• IQ = Mental Age/Chronological Age x 100
– Most common IQ score?
– 100! Why?
The “Normal” (Bell) Curve:
Approximate Distribution of IQ Scores in
the Population
Criticisms of IQ Tests
• Test content and scores
– Critics argue that IQ test measure a narrow set of skills
– Some feel that the tests merely measure test taking ability
– Tests may discriminate against minorities
• Use of intelligence tests
– Could result in permanent labeling
• IQ and success
– Relationship does exist, but may be the result of a selffulfilling prophecy
• Cases of Alicia P. and Gladys Burr?
What Determines Intelligence?
• Nature
– Biological similarities in Adoption Studies –
• IQ scores of child more closely correlated with
biological mother than adoptive mother.
– Identical Twins reared apart –
• after identical twins reared together, identical twins
reared apart have the highest correlation of IQ scores.
Correlation of IQ Scores of Family
Members
What Determines Intelligence?
• Nurture
– Isolated or Deprived Environments
• individuals living in culturally or physically
impoverished environments have lower IQ scores
– Adoption Studies and Improved Environment
• children demonstrated elevated IQ scores after being
moved from crowded orphanage to parents with high
socioeconomic status
What Determines Intelligence?
• Family Structure?
– Intellectual Climate – numerical calculation of the level of
intellect in a household, based on the number of family
members and their ages.
– Example Calculation – adults = 30, teens = 15, children = 5,
and newborns = 0:
• 2 adults:
– 30+30=60/2=intellectual climate of 30
• 2 adults and a newborn:
– 30+30+0=60/3=intellectual climate of 20
– Intellectual climate goes down most when there are many
children born in rapid succession.
Heredity vs. Environment:
Which is More Important?
• There is general agreement that both heredity
and environment affect IQ scores
• Debate centers around the relative
contribution of nature (heredity) and nurture
(environment) to the development of
intelligence
Determinants of Intelligence: Gender
• Early Research (1970s)
– males excel at math/spatial skill while females excel at verbal
• Hyde and Linn’s Meta-analysis (1988)
– intellectual differences between males and females are so small
that they are not statistically significant.
• Today’s Conclusions
– Overall, men and women do not differ significantly in general
intelligence
– Women show slight advantage in verbal and mathematical
computation skills while men show an advantage in spatial ability
– Men are more likely to fall in the extremes of intelligence range
– There is no explanation for why these minimal differences exist –
are they cultural or inborn?
Determinants of Intelligence
• Culture
– Difference in academic performance between
American and Asian students are found from first
grade through high school in mathematics and
reading
– May be related to a difference in cultural attitudes
toward ability and effort
• Stability of Intelligence
– IQ stays relatively steady over course of life
Extremes of Intelligence: Giftedness
• Definition
– top 3% of IQ scores, typically over 132,
– Superior IQ combined with ability in academics,
creativity, and leadership
– Giftedness is often in specific areas
– “Globally” gifted people are rare
• Specialized Programs of Study?
Extremes of Intelligence: Mental Retardation
• Definition
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IQ < 70; lowest 3% of IQ scores
not a result of accident
onset before age 18
substantial limitations in functioning.
• Causes – drug abuse during pregnancy, genetic disorders,
lack of fetal nutrition
• Levels
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Mild - 90% of cases
Moderate - 6% of cases
Severe - 3% of cases
Profound - 1% of cases
• Some people with retardation show savant performance on
particular skills
Mental Retardation
Level of Retardation
IQ Range
Mild
Low 50s-70s
individual may be able to function in society
normally, be minimally self supporting, function at
level of an 11 year old.
Moderate
Mid 30s-low 50s
can attain vocational training and do some things
independently; function at level of 8 year old.
Severe
Low 20s-mid 30s
cannot learn to talk or take care of basic needs
until the age of 6. Very limited functioning.
Profound
Below 20 or 25
constant care needed; usually other serious
complications and neurological deficiencies are
present.
Education and the Law
• All children are entitled to an education that is…
– FREE
– PUBLIC
– APPROPRIATE
• Mainstreaming
– keeping special needs kids in regular ed classes for whatever
subject areas/activities they can handle
• Inclusion
– rather than taking special needs kids out of regular ed classes
for support, bring support personnel into regular ed classes so
kids can stay with their peers.
• Leveling
– separating children by ability into different classes
Creativity
• Defined as the ability to produce novel and socially valued
ideas or objects
• Creativity and Intelligence – Early studies suggested that
there was little relationship between the two, however,
later research indicates otherwise: creative individuals tend
to have higher IQs AND creative individuals are perceived
as being more intelligent as well.
• Creativity Tests –
– Open-ended questions; scoring is based upon the number and
originality of a person’s answers
• Torrance Test – Individuals explain a picture, its origins, and consequences
• Mednick’s Remote Association Test (RAT) – given three words – you come
up with a fourth word that the other three can be combined with e.g. hand,
lone, win (answer = some)