*
*
* Iconic – Visual (1/4 - 1 of a second)
* After images
* Echoic – Auditory (up to 2 - 3 seconds)
*
* Maintaince Rehearsal – extra 20 - 30 seconds
(restart)
* George Miller – Magic #7
* Chunking – ICA, BFI = CIA, FBI
* Mnemonic Decices – Never Eat Soggy Waffles
*
*
Episodic - Memory
*
of own life experiences
(autobiographical)
* Semantic – General knowledge
* Encyclopedia – Christmas = Dec 25th
* Procedural – Learned skill that does not require
conscious recollection
* Tying a tie
* Ride a bike
* Declarative memory – factual info
* Knowledge called forth consciously as needed
* i.e.; names, dates, faces, events, concepts, ideas
* Implicit v. Explicit
* Implicit – don’t realize your washing the floor
* Don’t need to be taught, just watched
* Explicit – conscious facts events (declarative)
*
* Recall v. Recognition
* Recall – Essay
* Recognition – Multiple Choice
* Ebbinghaus – forgetting curve
* Serial Position Effect – beginning of a list, end of a
list is what you remember
*
* Primacy
* Recency
Long-Term Potentiation
* Repeated firing strengthens neural connection
*
* Tip-of-the-tounge Phenomenon
* Retrieval error
* Flashbulb memory
*
when you are trying to remember something and
then it “all of a sudden comes to you.”
* Mood-congruent memory
* Not only store the memory of the event, but the
feeling you had when it happened
* State-dependent memory
* Retrieval is easiest when in the same state of mind
when material was learned.
*
* Retroactive interference
*
Remember new, interfere old
* Proactive interference
* Remember old, forget new
* Anterograde Amnesia
* Hippocampal damage
* No new memories
*
* Schema – conceptual framework
* i.e.; elementary school teacher
* Clustering – Long-term version of Chunking
* Conceptual hierarchy
* Semantic Network
* Specific nodes
* Red -> Fire Engine -> Apple (Tangents)
*
I.e.; Kim Peek
* Connectionist Model
* Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP)
*
*
Different places in the brain fire at once
You see a picture – multiple places light up in the brain (PET Scan)
*
*
Study how our behaviors and thoughts change
over our entire lives, from birth to death
* Nature – genetic factors
* Nurture – environmental factors
*
* Cross-sectional
* Uses participants of different ages to compare how
certain variables may change over the life span.
* i.e.; 5 – 10, 10 – 20, 20 – 30, 30 – 40
* Quick results, but historical events/culture trends may
effect results
* Longitudinal research
* Takes place over a lengthy period of time
* One group of participants
* Advantage of measuring the effects of development on
specific group
* Problem – time consuming
*
* Reflexes – specific, inborn, automatic responses to
certain specific stimuli (the following will disappear
over time in adulthood)
* Rooting reflex – touch check, baby turns their head
in direction of touch to put whatever in their mouth
* Sucking reflex – object in babies mouth infant will
suck (combo of rooting/sucking – help babies learn
to eat)
* Grasping reflex – Object placed into baby’s
palm/foot pad baby will try to grasp
* Moro reflex – when startled baby will fling limbs out
and slowly pull back in
* Babinski reflex – baby’s foot stroked, toes will
spread
*
* Roll @ 5 ½ months old
* Stand @ 8 – 9 months old
* Walk by themselves @ 15 months old
*
* Attachment – reciprocal relationship between
caregiver and child
* Harry Harlow (Monkeys)
* 2 artificial wire frame figures resemble mother
* One had a bottle
* Other was wrapped in soft material
* Monkey preferred – soft material
* Importance of physical comfort
* Deprivation of not being with real mother led to
distressed monkeys when put in new surrondings.
*
* Mary Ainsworth (humans) – strange situation:
parents left them alone for a short period of
time then returned
* Secure attachments – 66% participants
confidently explore when parent present,
distressed when they leave, come to parents
when they return
* Avoidant attachment – 21% participants may
resist parents and explore, do not go to parents
for comfort upon return from absence
* Anxious/ambivalent attachment (resistant
attachment) – 12% participants show extreme
stress when parent gone, resistant when they
return
*
* Authoritarian parent – set strict standards for child’s
behavior, apply punishment for violations of rules
* Obedience valued more than discussion of what
went wrong
* Grounded without explanation
* Permissive parents – do not set clear guidelines for
their children (Regina George) Rules change, not
enforced
* Come in late – parents reaction unpredictable
* Child – emotional control problems/dependent
* Authoritative parents – set consistent standards for
their children's behavior, standards are
reasonable/explained
* Encourage independence but not past the point of
violating rules
*
* Continuity – develop continually – steadfast
rate from birth to death
* Vygotsky – ZPD
* Discontinuity – in fits and starts with some
periods of rapid development some with
relatively little change
* Stage theories
(Freud/Erikson)
*
* Oral – (Birth – 1.5) infant seeks pleasure through mouth
* People fixated might: overeat, smoke, dependence on things
and others
* Anal Stage (1.5 o 2.5) – toilet training
* Retentive – controlling
* Expulsive – out of control
* Phallic Stage (2.5 – 6) – realize their gender
* Oeidpus complex
* Electra complex
* Take on morals, values of parents
* Genital Stage – (6 to adolescents)
* Latency stage – period of calm (may be seen as apart of
Genital stages)
* 6 -12 low levesl of psychosexual anxiety
* Adolescents – seek marriage partner
*
* Trust v. Mistrust
* Babies Needs fulfilled – trust provider or not?
* Request (crying) = help (Trust)
* Autonomy v. Shame/Doubt
* Autonomy our control over own body (potty training, temper)
* “NO” = control
* Initiative v. Guilt
* “No” to “Why?”
* Children want to understand the world – problem solving (ask many questions)
* If met we feel comfortable sharing out thoughts, if not we feel guilty about
asking questions and avoid doing so
* Industry v. Inferiority
* Preschool – Kindergarten
* First time evaluated – if we feel good or as good as the person next to us
solving math problems we feel competent
* Inferiority complex arises when we fail to reach standards
*
* Identity v. Confusion
* Discover what social ID we are most comfortable with
* Try to fit in groups, find you . . . If not identity crisis
* Intimacy v. Isolation
* Young adults balance their ties and efforts between work (careers,
school, self-improvement) and relationships with others
* Platonic/romantic relationship
* Generativity v. Stagnation
* Look critically at life path, create type of life we want for ourselves
and family
* We want our lives to go the way we want them to
* If not we try and change our ID, or control others around us
* Integrity v. Despair
* Look back at accomplishment decide if we are satisfied with them or
not offer wisdom from stressors in life
*
* Piaget noted that children of roughly same age almost
give similar answers on IQ
* Assimilation – incorporate our experiences into these
existing schemata
* Accommodate
* Schema – conceptual frame work
* Example:
* A child seeing a zebra for the first time and calling it a horse. The
child assimilates this information into her schema for a horse. When
the child accommodates information, she takes into consideration
the different properties of a zebra compared to a horse, perhaps
calling a zebra a horse with stripes. When she eventually learns
the name of zebra, she has accommodated this information
*
* Sensorimotor Stage (birth to approx 2 years old)
* Babies explore through senses, which is governed by reflex's we are
born with. Soon we develop cognitive schemata to explain the
world we experience through senses
* Object permanence – Babies at first do not realize that objects continue
to exist even when they are out of sensory range. When babies realize
things still exist even if out of sight they have achieved Object
Permanence.
* Preoperational Stage (2 years old to approx 7)
* Use symbols to represent real-world objects.
Beginning of
language most important development.
* Egocentric – Look at world only through their eyes.
*
* Concrete Operations (8 years old to approx 12)
* Learn to think logically about complex relationships between
different characteristics of objects.
* Conservation – realization that properties of objects remain the same
even when their shapes change.
* Formal Operations (12 years old through adulthood)
* Not all of us reach formal operations in all areas of thought
* Formal operational reasoning is abstract reasoning
* i.e; hypothesis testing
* i.e.; “how would you be different if you were born on a planet that had
no light?”
* Metacognition – ability to think about the way we think
*
* Information-processing model – ability to memorize,
interpret, and perceive gradually develop as we age rather
than developing in distinct stages
* i.e.; attention span grows as we get older
*
* Kohlberg – out ability to reason about ethical situations
changes over time.
* Heinz dilemma – moral choice about whether to steal a drug he
cannot afford in order to save his wife’s life.
* 3 Levels:
* Preconventional
* Conventional
* Postconventional
*
* Preconvetional
*
*
*
Decision making focused on avoiding punishment
Limited to see how it only affects themselves
i.e.; Heinz should not steal the drug because he might get caught and put into prison
*
*
*
*
Moral choice through other’s eyes
Make choices based on how others will view them
Follow rules they have learned to be seen as good
i.e.; Heinz should steal the drug because then he could save his wife and people would
think of him as a hero
* Conventional
* Postconventional
*
*
*
*
Moral reasoning
Examines the rights and values involved in the choice, self-defined ethical principles . . .
Personal conviction to uphold justice.
Do not blindly follow societies rules
i.e.; Heinz should steal the drug because his wife’s right to life outweighs the store owner’s
right o personal property
*
* Gender differences in Kohlberg’s study
* Boys have a more black/white view girls pay
more attention to situational factors
* Just a theory, not proven
*