Chapter 7
Fundamentals of Energy
Fossil Fuels and Nuclear Energy
Tar Sand
Tar sands, also referred to as oil sands or
bituminous sands, are a combination of clay,
sand, water, and a solid, tar-like petroleum,
called bitumen
The bitumen is far too thick
to flow out of the rock
85% of all tar sand
deposits occur in Canada
Most of the remaining 15% is found in
Venezuela and Russia, but these deposits
will probably never be economical to mine
Tar Sand
About 88% of Canada’s known petroleum
reserves are tar sands
Tar Sand
Fortunately, the Canadian
tar sand are concentrated
in three regions in the
state of Alberta
This concentration means
that some of these
deposits are currently
economic to mine
In fact, serious tar sand
mining began before WWII
Tar Sand
There are about 174 billion barrels of crude
bitumen which are economically recoverable
from the three Alberta oil sands areas at
current prices using current technology
This is equivalent to about 10% of the
estimated 1,700 and 2,500 billion barrels of
bitumen in place
Tar Sand
It takes two tons of tar sand
to produce one barrel of oil
Tar Sand
Note the processing plant in the distance
Tar Sand
The oil sands after surface removal are further
broken up and then extracted from the rock pores
by subjecting the material to hot water and other
chemicals, such as sodium hydroxide
The oil-bearing sand is
piped into a large settling
tank where the heavy sand
settles to the bottom,
water settles above that,
and the oil floats to the
top, where it can be
removed for refining
Tar Sand
For every barrel of oil produced from tar
sands in Alberta, more than 80 kg of
greenhouse gases are released into the
atmosphere and between 2 and 4 barrels of
waste water are dumped into tailing ponds
that have flooded about 50 square kilometers
of forest and bogs
Tar Sand
Critics contend that measures taken to
minimize environmental and health risks
posed by large-scale mining operations are
inadequate, potentially causing damage to
archaeological sites and natural resources
Tar Sand
The open-pit mining of the Alberta oils sands
destroys the boreal forest, the bogs, the
rivers as well as the natural landscape
The mining industry
believes that the boreal
forest will eventually
colonize the reclaimed
lands, yet 30 years after
the opening of the first
open pit mine in the
region no land is
considered as having
been "restored“
Coal
Coal
Coal currently provides 23% of the total U.S.
energy needs
Now that oil and gas are dwindling, many
energy producers and users are looking again
at the potential of coal
Formation of Coal Deposits
Unlike petroleum, coal is not formed from marine
organisms, but from the remains of land plants
A swampy setting, in which plant growth is lush
and where there is water to cover fallen trees,
dead leaves and other plant debris, is ideal for
the initial stages to create coal
Formation of Coal Deposits
The formation of coal from dead plant matter
requires burial, pressure, heat and time
The process works best under anaerobic
conditions (no oxygen) since the reaction with
oxygen during decay destroys the organic matter
It is the carbon content of the coal that supplies
most of its heating value
The greater the carbon to oxygen ratio the harder
the coal, the more reduced the state of the
carbons and the more potential energy it contains
Formation of Coal Deposits
The products of coalification are divided into four
major categories based on the carbon content of
the material
Peat
Lignite
Bituminous
Anthracite
Peat
Peat is an accumulation of partially
decayed vegetation matter and is
the first stage in the formation of
coal
Peat forms in wetlands, variously called bogs,
moors, muskegs, pocosins, mires, and swamps
It contains a large amount of water and must be dried
before use
Historically, it has been used as a source of heat and
burns with a long flame and considerable smoke
Peat
Peat deposits are found in many places around
the world, notably in Russia, Ireland, Finland,
Scotland, Poland, northern Germany, the
Netherlands and Scandinavia, and in North
America
Approximately 60%
of the world's
wetlands have peat
Peat
Peat is still mined as a fuel in Ireland and England
The peat is stacked
to slowly dry out
Lignite
Lignite is the second step in the
formation of coal and is formed
when peat is subjected to
increased vertical pressure
from accumulating sediments
Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, is the
lowest rank of coal and used almost exclusively
as fuel for steam-electric power generation
It has a high inherent moisture content,
sometimes as high as 66 percent, and very high
ash content compared to bituminous coal
Lignite
Because of its low energy density, brown coal
is inefficient to transport and is not traded
extensively on the world market compared to
higher coal grades
It is often burned in power stations constructed
very close to the mines
Bituminous
Bituminous Coal is the third stage of coal
formation
Additional pressure over time has made it
compact and virtually all traces of plant life
have disappeared
It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of
poorer quality than anthracite coal
It is greatly used in industry as a source of
heat energy
Bituminous
Bituminous coal is usually black, sometimes
dark brown, often with well-defined bands of
bright and dull material
It is a relatively hard coal containing a tarlike substance called bitumen
Bituminous
Bituminous coal is a complex molecular mix
of 60-80% carbon, plus oxygen, hydrogen and
nitrogen, plus some occasional impurities
like sulfur
Coking Coal
When used for many industrial
processes, bituminous coal must
first be "coked" to remove volatile
components
Coking is achieved by heating the coal in the
absence of oxygen, which drives off volatile
hydrocarbons such as propane, benzene and
other aromatic hydrocarbons, and some sulfur
gases and a considerable amount of the
contained water of the bituminous coal
Coking coal is used in the manufacture of steel,
where carbon must be as volatile-free and ashfree as possible
Anthracite
Anthracite is formed during the forth stage of
coal formation
It is the most valuable and highest grade of coal,
and has a carbon content of 92-98%
Physically, anthracite differs
from bituminous coal by its
greater hardness and higher
density
Plus, it burns far more
efficiently with less smoke
Fuel Efficiency
As the coals
becomes harder,
their carbon content
increases, and so
does the amount of
heat released
Anthracite produces
twice the energy
(BTUs) of lignite
U.S. Coal Reserves
The U.S. possesses 25% of all
the known coal in the world
U.S. Coal Reserves
U.S. coal reserves
represent about 50
times the energy
remaining in proven
oil reserves and 40
times the energy in
proven natural gas
reserves
U.S. Coal Reserves
The U.S. has
consumed half of
our oil reserves, but
only a few percent
of our coal reserves
Our coal reserves
could meet current
U.S. energy needs
for 200 years
(compared to 50
years for oil)
World Coal Reserves
46% of the U.S.
reserves are
bituminous and
anthracite
The remaining
54% is lignite
Coal-bed Methane
During the formation of coal deposits,
quantities of methane-rich gas are also formed
Historically, methane has been considered as
a hazardous nuisance
In fact, currently it is usually burned off rather
than recovered
It is estimated that 100
trillion cubic feet of
methane can be
economically recovered
from existing U.S. coal beds
Coal-bed Methane
U.S. coal deposits are
already mapped, so
there would be no
exploration cost
Waste water is a
potential pollution
problem
Coal-bed methane is
already being
produced in Utah
Coal Gasification
One of the most advanced - and cleanest - coal
power plants in the world is Tampa Electric's
Polk Power Station in Florida
It uses a coal gasification process that turns
coal into a gas that can be cleaned of almost all
pollutants
Coal Gasification
The coal is heated inside a large oven and
blasted with steam
The coal is converted into carbon monoxide
and hydrogen gas
Hydrogen gas burns very easily
Coal Gasification
This 2544-ton-per-day
coal gasification
demonstration pilot
plant in Pennsylvania,
will have energy
conversion efficiencies
20 to 35% higher than
those of conventional
pulverized-coal steam
power plants
Coal Liquefaction
Coal can also be converted
into liquid fuels like gasoline
or diesel by several different
processes
This is an attractive
technology because it is well
developed and thus could be
implemented fairly rapidly
and there are relatively large
quantities of coal reserves
Coal Liquefaction
Estimates of the cost of producing liquid
fuels from coal suggest that domestic U.S.
production of fuel from coal becomes costcompetitive with oil priced at around $35 US
per barrel (currently over $100 per barrel)
A coal liquefaction
test plant in Japan
Coal & Environment
A major problem with coal is the pollution
associated with its mining and use
Coal is a major source of the greenhouse gas,
carbon dioxide
In fact, coal releases more carbon dioxide per
unit energy burned than natural gas or oil
Coal & Sulfur
The pollutant of special concern
with coal is sulfur
The sulfur content of coal can be as high as 3%,
with some in the form of the iron sulfate mineral
pyrite (FeS2) and some bound in the remaining
organic matter
When a coal containing sulfur is burned, sulfur
gases, notably sulfur dioxide (SO2), are emitted
These gases are poisonous and are extremely
irritating to both eyes and lungs
Acid Rain
These sulfur gases also react with
water in the atmosphere to produce
sulfuric acid, which is a very strong
acid
This acid falls to earth as acid rain
These trees near
coal-fired power
plants have been
killed by acid rain
A Hard Rain’s A-gonna Fall
Acidity in rain is measured by collecting samples
of rain and measuring its pH
The areas of greatest acidity (lowest pH values)
are located in the Northeastern U.S.
A Hard Rain’s A-gonna Fall
This pattern of high acidity is caused by the
large number of cities, the dense population, and
the concentration of power and industrial plants
in the Northeast
A Hard Rain’s A-gonna Fall
Acid rain can acidify soil, stunting plant growth
It can kill fish and other aquatic life, dissolve
rocks, destroy the surface of building facades
and monuments
Most coal-burning power
plants have scrubbers in the
smoke stacks that remove
most, but not all of the
sulfur gas emissions
Low sulfur coal, less than
1%, is the coal of choice
Ash
Coal also produces a tremendous amount of
solid waste
The ash residue left after coal is burned is
typically 5-20% of the original volume
It is primarily
composed
primarily of noncombustible
silicate minerals,
but also contains
toxic metals
Ash
If released with emission gases, the ash fouls
the air
When dumped onto the surface, the fine-grained
ash weathers very rapidly, releasing toxic
metals, such as selenium, creating a serious
water-pollution threat
The average coalfired power plant
produces one
million tons of ash
per year, which is
usually buried
Ash
On December 22,
2008, there was a
catastrophic
collapse of the
dyke around an
ash retention pond
at the TVA coalpowered electricity
generating facility
at Kingston,
Tennessee
Ash
TVA estimated that 5.4 million gallons of
wet fly ash had escaped thru the breach
Ash
About 40 private homes, buildings and other structures
were damaged or destroyed by the ash flow
Some residents were forced to leave their homes forever
Ash
TVA denies that the fly ash is dangerous to the
environment or to human health
However, TVA’s own records revealed that the
5.4 million gallons of fly ash contained
44,000 pounds of arsenic
49,000 pounds of lead
142,000 pounds of manganese
1.4 million pounds of barium compounds
Ash
TVA has been cleaning up the disaster for almost 3
years, but the progress is very slow
It will cost one billion dollars to clean the mess up
14 law suits have been files, but TVA claims
immunity by the “principle of discretionary
function”
Company Script
“I owe my soul to the company store”
- from the song 16 Tons by Tennessee Ernie Ford
Miners were paid with
with company script,
called tokens, which
could only be used at
the company store
Coal Mining Deaths
Underground coal mining is notoriously dangerous
The decrease in coal mining fatalities is due to:
Better enforcement of safety regulations
More surface strip mining of coal
Coal Mining Deaths
In particular, coal mining has a bad history of
dangerous working conditions, serious health
problems and the highest death rate among
miners
1907 Monongah Mine Disaster
The Monongah No. 6 & No. 8 Mine disaster in
West Virginia occurred at 10:20 am on
December 6, 1907 and is the “the worst mining
disaster in American history”
The official death count is 362, but it is believed
that over 500 were killed
An
electrical
spark
ignited
methane
and coal
dust
Upper Big Branch Mine Explosion
Upper Big Branch Mine explosion occurred on
April 5, 2010 and killed 29 miners
Due to the large concentration of toxic gases in
the mine, MSHA investigators had to wait for
over two months to enter the mine to investigate
the explosion
Upper Big Branch Mine Explosion
The mine was operated by Massey Energy
Investigators faulted Massey for failure to properly
maintain its ventilation systems which allowed
methane levels to increase to dangerous amounts
MSHA had found 505 mining violations at the mine
in 2009, but had not acted on any of them
Massey was accused in the final report of
intimidating miners and state officials
Upper Big Branch Mine Explosion
The company that purchased Massey was ordered
to pay a MSHA $10.8 civil fine plus $209 million for
the Dept. of Justice settlement
The settlement comprises $46.5 million in
restitution payments, $34.8 million in fines for
safety citations, $48 million for a health and safety
research and development trust fund, and $80
million for safety improvements during two years
The restitution payments are
$1.5 million to each of the two
survivors and the families of
each the 29 fatal casualties
Surface Mining
In 1950, only 20% of U.S. coal was obtained by
surface strip mining
By 2000, over 65% of U.S. coal was from
surface strip mining
This is partly due
to increased
mining of nearsurface coal
seams out west
Surface Mining
50% of U.S. coal reserves are in the western
U.S., of which about 40% can be surfaced mined
Coal Seam Fires
Coal Seam Fires in U.S.
An underground coal mine has been on fire
in Centralia, Pennsylvania since 1962
It was started by a fire in an adjacent dump
Over 1000 residents have been located, at a
cost of over $40 million
Coal Seam Fires in U.S.
The Centralia
fire closed
highway 61
Coal Seam Fires in U.S.
A coal seam fire has been burning for more than
a century near Glenwood Springs, Colorado
It caused a major forest fire in 2002
Coal Seam Fires in U.S.
DENVER – “A Golden-based
geologist is proposing a pilot project
to tap an underground coal seam
fire west of Glenwood Springs for
energy and other resources.
Lindsey V. Maness Jr. of In-Situ
Coal Energy Corp. says that
pumping oxygen to the fire can
produce coal oil, electricity through
turbines and other methods,
mineral byproducts and a
greenhouse operation to capture
heat and carbon dioxide.”
Coal Seam Fires in China
It is estimated that coal mine fires in China burn
about 200 million tons of coal each year
These fires release about 360 million metric tons of
carbon dioxide greenhouse gas emissions per year
Coal Seam Fires
How do you put out a coal seam fire?
Coal Seam Fires
“Abatement methods range from complete excavation
and quenching with water (where practicable and
affordable) to the use of specialty foaming cements and
fire fighting foams that are injected into the fire through
boreholes drilled from the ground surface. The intent of
the injection is to isolate the fire with a barrier of
foaming cement followed by the extinguishment of the
fire by using a fire fighting foam. Other techniques that
may be used include the use of liquid nitrogen to
extinguish the fire by the rapid removal of heat.”
- Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and
Enforcement, U.S. Department of the Interior