ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR






The Personal System in Relation
to Needs and Behavior
Basic
needs
modified Personal
system
by
results
in
Overt
behavior
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Hierarchy
Self-Actualization
Needs
represent the need for
self-fulfillment
Esteem Needs
desire for a positive self-image
and to receive attention
Belongingness Needs
desire to be accepted by one’s peers
Safety Needs
safe and secure physical and emotional environment
Physiological Needs
most basic human physical needs
McClelland’s
Needs
(nAch)
Theory
The drive to excel, to
Need for
Achievement
Need for
accomplish
Power
challenging
tasks,
(nPow)
anddesire
to achieve
The
to a
Need for
standard
of control
influence
and
Affiliation The desire for friendly and
excellence
one’s
environment
(nAff)
close interpersonal
relationships.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Satisfaction
Motivators
influence level of
satisfaction.
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work itself
Personal growth
Working conditions
Dissatisfaction Pay and security
Hygiene factors
Company policies
influence level
Supervisors
of dissatisfaction.
Interpersonal
relationships
Expectancy Theory
Victor Varoom
Premise - People base behavior on
perceived outcomes
If I try
Can I do It?
Effort in
Task behavior
Effort-Performance
Expectancy
Ability
Training
Tools
Level of
Achieved Task
Performance
If I Do It
Will I get
a Reward?
Performance-Reward
Instrumentality
Consistency
Outcomes or
Rewards for
Achieved
Performance
Valence of
Rewards
Is The Reward
One I want?
Skinner
Reinforcement Theory
What gets
Reinforced (rewarded)
Gets repeated
Reinforcement Perspective on
Motivation
Positive reinforcement in the
administration of a pleasant and
rewarding consequence.
Avoidance learning is the removal of
an unpleasant consequence following
a desired behavior.
Reinforcement Tools
Punishment is the imposition of
unpleasant outcomes on an employee.
Extinction is the withdrawal of a positive
reward; behavior is no longer reinforced
and hence is less likely to occur in the
future.
Rewards
Doing Internal
Intrinsic rewards--satisfactions a
person receives in the process of
performing a particular action.
Most effective
Extrinsic rewards--given by
another person.
Equity Model
• Equity model focuses on an individual’s
feelings about how fairly he or she is
treated in comparison with others.
–Individuals compare their situations
with those of others to determine the
equity of their own situation.
Others in company
Similar positions other companies
Closing Thoughts
•
•
•
•
•
•
Tell people what is expected.
Make the work valuable.
Make the work doable.
Give frequent feedback.
Reward success.
Closer rewards follow behavior – the better
Large variation of needs
TM 8-1
The Connection between Needs and
Actions
modified
by
Basic
human
needs
Past
experience
lead
to
which
determines
Personal
system
resulting
in
Perceptions
and
expectancies
about choices
in the
context of
Behavior
Choices
Actions
Situation
which feed back on
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
The
Personal
System
What is really
Are those objects or events
important in life
in the future that we strive
and basic to one
for to meet our basic
as an individual
needs
Values
Are ideas people
have about the
world and how it
operates
Goals
Selfconcept
Are the areas of
knowledge, ability and
skill that increase an
individuals
effectiveness in
dealing with the world
Beliefs
Competencies
How Behavior Results from Perceptions and
Expectancies as Influenced by the Self-Concept
TM 8-3
Perceptions
Personal system
•
•
•
•
• What is perceived
goals
influences
and how it is
competencies
interpreted
beliefs
values
Expectancies
Self-concept
confirm
or
disconfirm
results
in
• norms
• roles
• rewards
• etc.
leading
to
• About how
choices will
affect outcomes
and self-concept
The situation
Actions
(choices)
Outcomes
in the
context of
• positive
• negative
influences
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
The Attribution Process
Refers to the ways in which people come to
understand the causes of their own and others’
behavior.
Sometimes people make attributions consciously,
but perhaps most often attributions are made
unconsciously.
Internal and External Attributions
We make attribution as to behavior base on
three issues
Distinctiveness
Consistency
Consensus
Does the
person behave
in the same
manner in
different
situations?
Does this
person behave
in this same
manner at
other times?
Do other
people behave
in this same
manner?
Attributions of Internal and External
Causes of Behavior
Consistency is high
Distinctiveness is high
Consensus is high
Attribution of
external causes
Consistency is high
Distinctiveness is low
Consensus is low
Attribution of
internal causes
Consistency is low
Distinctiveness is low
Consistency is low
Attribution of either
external or internal
causes
Attribution Errors
• Fundamental Attribution Error
Tendency to underestimate the importance of
external factors and overestimate the
important of internal factors when making
attribution about the behavior of others.
• Self-Serving Bias
The tendency that people have to take credit
for successful work and deny responsibility
for poor work.
Attribution Errors
• Actor/Observer Bias
– The tendency to view others successful
work to external causes and poor work to
internal causes.
Can’t resist - cute sayings
Over generalizations
We see what we want
We see what we need
Where you stand depends on where you sit
Self
Success - our fault
Failure - environment
Others
Failure - their fault
Success - result of situation
That’s it for
today
On to groups
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR






KEIRSEY Temperament Sorter
People are different form each other
They differ in fundamental ways- want different
things, motives, values, needs
People with preferences opposite yours tend to
be opposite in many ways - strong where you are
weak - weak where you are strong
Each type has its own strengths and abilities
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
7 3
x
4 6
7 3
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
5 5
4 6
9 11
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
•The Type Indicator is concerned with the
valuable differences in people that result
from the way they like to perceived and the
way they like to judge.
•Succeeding at anything takes both.
•These also govern a large part of our
behavior
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Where we direct our attention
75%
Extroversion
•External world
•Active, Sociable
•Charged by people
•Friendly, Talkative
Introversion
25%
•Inner world
•Quite, Alone
•Drained by people
•Thinking, Reading
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
How we perceive-what
information we tune into
75%
Sensing
•5 senses
•Facts
•Practical
•Present
iNtuition
25%
•From the gut
•Relationships
•Patterns
•Future/Possibilities
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Judging -coming to conclusions
50%
Thinking
Head
•Analytical
•Practical
•Objective
•Impersonal
Feeling
50%
•Values Heart
•Feelings
•Warm
•Personal
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Use perceiving or judging dealing
with
environment
50%
50%
Judging
•Closure
•Deadlines
•Solid decisions
•Planned
Perceiving
•Possibilities
•Open-ended
•Spontaneous
•Flexible
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Charmer
38% SP’s
Be Prepared
SJ’s
38%
Teacher •“Duty/Service”
•“Doer”
Preacher •Useful
•Impulsive
•Obligated
•Restless
Painter •Never practice
•Loyal
Athletes •Tools
•Should & Ought
Gamblers
•Stability
•Must be free
Entrepreneur
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
Problem Solver
“Why”
12% NT’s
Inspirational
“Causes”
NF’s
12%
•“Becoming
•“Knowing”
•Search for self
•Competence
•Enthusiastic
•Understanding
•Perfectionist Novelist•Meaning
Science
Poet
•Causes
Research•Self critical
Ministry
•Integrity/Harmony
Finance •Aliens
College Prof
Advertising
Teacher
TASK
•Using
“Issues Facing Any Work Group”
(previous 3 slides)
•Analyze your groups TEC - Compare how
your TEC accomplishes the issue
•Write and hand in your group’s analysis
•Fill out a TEC on this exercise
(date and indicate exercise)
That’s it for
today
On to groups
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR






Elements of Interpersonal Communication
SensesReceiver
Senses
Sender
Transmitters
Channels
Symbols
Means
Encoding
Receptors
Symbols
Putting
in
a
form
Purpose
What do these
other person
1. understanding themean?
MEANING
2.Start
prompt
action will understand
Decoding
MEANING
Elements of Interpersonal Communication
Sender
Receiver
Transmitters
Channels
Receptors
Decoding
Noise
Encoding
Noise
Start MEANING
MEANING
Noise
Noise
Encoding
Feedback
Decoding
Receptors
Channels
Transmitters
Examples of Media Richness
Face-to-face dialogue *
Videoconference *
Telephone conversation *
* Voice mail
* E-mail
* Informal letters/memos
* Organization’s own videos
* Formal written documents
* Formal numerical documents
Barriers to Effective
Communication
Diversity
Semantics
Frame of
Reference
Selective
Listening
Value
Judgments
Source
Creditability
Filtering
Overload
Status
Time
Differences Pressures
The Johari Window
Known by
Self
Unknown by
Self
Known by
Others
Arena
Blindspot
Unknown
by Others
Facade
Unknown
The Johari Window
Less
Feedback
More
Less
More
A
BS
F
Unk
The Johari Window
Less
Feedback
More
A
BS
F
Unk
The Johari Window
Less
Feedback
More
Less
More
A
BS
F
Unk
The Johari Window
Feedback
Less
More
More
A
BS
F
Unk
The Johari Window
Type A
Feedback
Less
More
A
F
More
BS
Unk
Use little exposure
or feedback
Exhibit anxiety and
safety seeking
behavior
Appear aloof and cold
towards others
The Johari Window
Type B
Feedback
Less
More
A
F
BS
Unk
Use little exposure
Over use feedback
Exhibit interest in others
and mistrust in others
More
Can appear positive and
supportive towards
others
The Johari Window
Type C
Feedback
Less
More
A
F
More
BS
Unk
Over use of exposure
Little asking for feedback
Exhibit confidence in self
and lack of confidence in
others
Appear to not care about
others opinions
The Johari Window
Type D
Feedback
Less
More
A
F
More
BS
Unk
Use both exposure
and feedback
Exhibit candor and
openness
Appear sensitive and
scary
Principles of Constructive
Feedback
• Examine your own motive
• Make feedback specific rather than
general.
• Give feedback when receiver is ready
to accept it.
• Verify validity of feedback with
receiver.
Principles of Constructive
Feedback
• Provide feedback on behaviors the
receiver can change.
• Don’t overwhelm receiver with
feedback.
• Provide feedback using descriptive
information about what the person
said or did.
• Avoid feedback using evaluative
inferences about motives, intent,
or feelings.
That’s it for
today
On to groups
TM 10-1
Four Levels of Exchange between
Speaker and Listener
Feelings about
Feelings
about self
Feelings
about self
subject matter
Subject
matter
A
B
Feelings about
one another
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 10-2
Other’s Statements Are Modified by
Receiver’s Self-Concept
Person A’s
self-concept
X ZZ
ZZ X
XZ X X
Message
received
B
Person B’s
self-concept
A
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
Self-Concepts and Perceptions of
Other Filter Messages In and Out
TM 10-3
Message intended
Message sent
A
Message
received
A’s
selfconcept
A’s
perceptions
of B’s selfconcept
B’s
perceptions
of B’s selfconcept
B’s
selfconcept
Message
received
B
Message sent
Message intended
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 10-4
Guidelines for Active Listening
DO
Objectives: To help others gain
clear understanding of their
situations, so they can take
responsible action.
To demonstrate your appreciation
of meaning and feelings behind
other’s statements, of worth of
other person, and of your willingness to listen without passing
judgement.
SOURCE: Cohen et al., Effective Behavior in
Organizations (Homewood, Ill.; Richard D. Irwin, 1976).
Based on Carl Rogers and Richard Farson, “active
Listening.”
DON’T
1.
Create supportive
atmosphere.
1.
Try to change other’s views.
2.
Listen for feelings as well as
words.
2.
Solve problem for other.
3.
Note cues – gestures, tone of
voice, body positions, eye
movements, breathing, and
the like.
3.
Give advice (no matter how
obvious the solution is for
you).
4.
Occasionally test for
understanding: “is this what
you meant?”
4.
Pass judgement.
5.
Demonstrate acceptance and
understanding, verbally and
nonverbally.
5.
Explain or interpret other’s
behavior.
6.
Ask exploratory, open-ended
questions.
6.
Give false reassurance.
7.
Attack back if the other is
hostile to you – understand
the source of anger.
8.
Ask questions about “why”
the feelings.”
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 10-5
Model of a Two-Person Relationship
Unknown to B
Known to B
RELATIONSHIP FROM B’s POSITION
RELATIONSHIP FROM A’s POSITION
Known to A
Unknown to A
Openly shared data
A’s unshared data
B’s blind spots
B’s unshared data
A’s blind spots
Unknowns in the
relationship
Future potential
NOTE: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window,” a concept presented in J. Luft, Group Processes
(Palo Alto Calif.; National Press Books, 1970.)
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 10-6
Guidelines for Giving Feedback
1.
Examine your own motives
2.
Consider the receiver’s readiness to hear your feedback
3.
Give feedback promptly
4.
Be descriptive rather than evaluate
5.
Deal in specifics, not in generalities.
6.
Offer feedback; do not try to impose it.
7.
Offer feedback in a spirit of tentativeness
8.
Be open to receiving feedback yourself
9.
Avoid overload.
10. Highlight costs of the behavior to the other.
11. Watch for any behavior of the other while receiving
feedback.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 10-7
Schema for Analyzing Two-Person
Work Relationship
CHAPTER 9
Background factors
External status
Organizational culture
Technology/layout
Reward system
Personal system
(self-concept, needs)
Required system
Activities
Interactions
Attitudes
Preferred interaction
styles
Conventional/polite
Speculative/tentative
Aggressive/argumentative
Expressive/confrontive
Required task
relationship
From minimal task
to colleagueship
CHAPTER 10
Emergent Processes
• Adaptation to what is
required
• Communication
• Reciprocity
• Trust
• Blind spots and feedback
Interpersonal
outcomes
1. Productivity
2. Satisfaction
3. Development
1. Liking and
respect
2. Patterned
role
relationships
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
That’s it for
today
On to groups
ORGANIZATIONAL
BEHAVIOR






INFLUENCE
and
POWER
Influence/Power
Ability to affect the behavior
of others
Leadership
The exercise of influence
Getting people to do
what the organization
needs
A good idea, analysis, or
solution is interesting
but of little value until
someone makes it happen
Making it happen
is leadership
Sources of Influence
Formal
Boss
Worker
Legitimate
reward
Reward
Coercive
Expert
Referent
punishment
Worker
Worker
Position Characteristics
Associated with Power
CHARACTERISTIC
EXAMPLE
Centrality
More-central positions.
Criticality
Flexibility
Positions responsible for the
most critical tasks.
More-autonomous positions.
Visibility
More-visible positions.
Relevance
Positions most closely related
to important goals.
Organizational
Sources of Power
• Knowledge
• Resources
• Control of Decision Premises
and Information
• Network Centrality
• Formal Position
• Enhance the organization – in
relation to environment or
key problems
Process of influence
Herbert Kelman
• Compliance
– Depends on ability to mediate rewards &
punishment
• Identification
– Influenced because of attractiveness,
likable – charisma, or represents something
to which we aspire
• Internalization
– Influenced because it make sense or is
congruent with own values, ideas, etc.
Depends on credibility and trustworthiness
Process of influence
Herbert Kelman
• Compliance
– Behavior must be clearly spelled out
– Established system of punishment/rewards
– Must have power to administer
– A system of surveillance
Any of the above conditions not present,
The change will disappear
Effective for short term behavioral
change
Process of influence
Herbert Kelman
• Identification
All conditions
must be present
– Relationship must be important
– Change made to get approval, respect,
affection
– Giving and withholding of affection are
frequently used
– Rewards/punishment are administer with
consideration given to “strength” of
relationship
Good for emotionally
– Frequent contact
charged situations
Process of influence
Herbert Kelman
• Internalization
– Must be seen as trustworthy
– “buy into” need for change and involved in
setting goals and methods
– Opportunity to test and evaluate if working
– Mistakes are approached as to what can be
learned.
Produces long term behavior change
Leadership
Evolution of
Leadership Theories
Great
Person
Theory
Born
Trait
Theory
Intelligence
Dependability
Initiative
Behavioral
Theories
Situational
Contingency
Task Oriented
Leader
People Oriented Follower
Situation
Transactional
Charismatic
Transformational
Change Leader
Servant Leader
?
The Continuum of Leadership Behavior
Bosscentered
Subordinatecentered
Use of authority
by the manager
Area of freedom
for subordinates
Manager makes Manager
Decision and
presents ideas
announces it
And invites
questions
Manager“ sells”
decision
Manager permits
Subordinates to
function within
limits defined by
superiors
Manager defines
limits, asks group to
make decisions
Manager presents
problem, gets
suggestions,
Makes decisions
Manager presents
Tentative decision
Subject to change
High
Low
GRID
Robert Blake & Jane Mouton
1/9
9/9
Country Club
Team
Relationships Work accomplishment isConsensus
from
committed people;
interdependence
Desire:
approval organization
Desire:
self fullfillment
Adequate
performance
is
Thoughtful
attention
to
the
Fear: rejection through a “common stake” in
Fear:
through
balancing
the defeat
necessity
needspossible
of people
for
satisfying
organization
purpose leads
to of
to
get
out
work
with
maintaining
morale
relationships
leads
to aeffort
comEfficiency
inof
operations
results
Exertion of minimum
relationships
trust
and
respect.
people
at
a
satisfactory
level.
fortable,
friendly
organization
from
arranging conditions of
to get required
work
done
5/5
atmosphere
and
work
tempo.
in such a way that human
is appropriateMiddle
to sustain
of the Road
elements
interfere to a minimum
organization membership.
Politician
degree.
Desire: popularity
9/1
Fear: criticism
1/1
Task
Impoverished
Autocrat
Bureaucrat
Desire: get by
Fear: hopelessness
Desire: dominance
Fear: failure
CONCERN FOR PRODUCTION
High
Situational Leadership
An approach to leadership advocating the leaders
understand their own behavior, the behavior of
their subordinates, and the situation before
utilizing a particular leadership style.
This approach requires diagnostic skills in
human behavior on the part of the leader.
Hersey-Blanchard Situational
Leadership Model
– A situational leadership theory that emphasizes
followers and their level of maturity. The
leader must properly judge or intuitively know
followers’ maturity level and then use a
leadership style that fits the level.
Match leadership
behavior to subordinates
work maturity
Situational Leadership Hersey-Blanchard
High
Supporting
S3
Share Ideas
Facilitated
Decision Making
Selling
Coaching
R2 S2
Explain Decision
Clarification
Opportunity
Delegating
Telling
S4
S1
Specific
Instructions
Closely Supervise
R4
Get Out
of
The Way
R3
Low
TASK BEHAVIOR
Development level
of followers
R1 Not competent
Not committed
R2 Not competent
Committed
R3 Competent
Not committed
R4 Competent
R1
High
Committed
Hersey-Blanchard
Situational
Leadership Model
Transactional Leadership
The leader helps the follower identify what must be
done to accomplish the desired results: better
quality output, more sales or services, reduced cost
of production
the leader identifies a path that links goal
achievement to rewards, clarifies
expectations, and engages in a variety of
exchanges to support performance success.
Charismatic Leadership
• Charismatic leaders have a combination of
charm and personal magnetism that contribute to
a remarkable ability to get other people to
endorse their vision and promote it passionately.
A leader who has the ability to
motivate subordinates to
transcend their expected
performance.
Charismatic leadership emphasizes a
shared vision and values, promotes shared
identity, models desired behaviors, and
reflects strength.
Charismatic leaders rely heavily on referent
power, can distill complex ideas into
simple messages, and are risk seekers.
Contrast Transactional and
Charismatic Leadership
DIMENSION
TRANSACTIONAL CHARISMATIC
LEADERSHIP
LEADERSHIP
Primary sources of power
Reward, legitimate, expert Referent and reward
Basis of follower motivation
Extrinsic/economic
Intrinsic/emotional
Performance goals for
followers
Narrow, quantitative,
specific to position
Broad, qualitative, specific
to leader and vision
Emotional attachment to goals
Low
High
Expected followers’ behavior
Obey rules and regulations Developed through norms
and group pressures
Low to moderate
High
Follower commitment to leader
and vision
Impression management
tactics
Low use
High use
Transformational
Leadership
By expressing a vision, the transformational
leader persuades followers to work hard to
achieve the goals envisioned. The leader’s vision
provides the follower with motivation for hard
work that is self-rewarding (internal)
A leader distinguished by a special
ability to bring about innovation and
change.
Servant Leader
A leader who works to fulfill subordinates’
needs and goals as well as to achieve the
organization’s larger mission.
That’s it for
today
On to groups
TM 13-1
How Group Identity Develops
Required system
•Background factors
• Common goals
• Related tasks
• etc.
• Common profession
• Similar education
• etc.
Emergent system
• Shared beliefs/values
• Cohesiveness
• etc.
Group identity (self-concept)
Common:
• Time Horizon
• Task perspective
• Professional identity
• Attitudes toward
authority/structure
• Interpersonal orientation
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 14-1
A Way of Diagnosing Where to
Attempt Change
FUNCTIONAL
DYSFUNCTIONAL
Easily subject to change
A.
Support existing behavior
C.
Concentrate efforts
Not easily subject to change
B.
Protect the behavior
D.
Box off the person
or problem
SOURCE: From a lecture presented by Steven J. Ruma, June 1971, Bethel, Maine.
TM 14-2
Stakeholder Analysis Diagram for
Slade Company Case
Tony’s
group
(high status,
productive)
Tony
Sarto
(informal
group
leader)
Customers
President
of
Slade
Company
Ralph
Porter
(production
manager)
Employees
on other
floors of
the plant
Foremen
on other
floors of
the plant
Herman
Schell
(Otto’s
brother,
isolate)
Families
of
employees
Otto
Schell
(Foreman)
Eliminate
punch-out
system
Other
employees
in the plating
room
Personnel
department
(sets wages)
Harry
Clark and
his group
(productive,
cohesive)
Bob
Pearson
(deviant)
Unions
interested in
organizing
Slade
employees
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 14-3
Action-Research Cycle
Problem
defined
Data
gathered on causes,
related attitudes,
etc.
Evaluation of
solution, new
data created
Data
diagnosed
Solution
implemented
Solution
chosen
Alternate
solutions
developed
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 14-4
Change Problems Can Occur In
Any Subsystem
Individual
Two-person
Group
Low productivity
Low satisfaction
Intergroup
Low development
Leadership
Total system
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 14-5
Steps in Problem Diagnosis
Identify problem
then
Locate subsystem
it is in
then Look for source of problem first in
background factors; next in required
system; finally in emergent system
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 14-6 Possible Underlying Causes of Organizational Problems
Requiring
(1) When the focus of
the problem is:
and (2) the source of the problem is in the:
Background
factors
Required
system
Change
Emergent
system
then (3) the the causes might be:
Individual
Poor match of individual
with job; selection or
promotion problem.
Task too easy or too
difficult: poor
job definition.
Job fails to fulfill range
of needs: little chance
for learning.
Twoperson
Personality clash; conflict
in basic styles, values,
and so forth.
Poor role differentiation
and/or integration in job
description.
Misunderstandings, failure
to deal with differences in
preferences; unresolved
feelings.
Group
Insufficient resources; poor group
composition; bad
physical setup; wrong
behavior rewarded.
Task requirements
poorly defined; role
relationships unclear
or inappropriate.
Poor working process in
one or more of the 11
areas related to
effectiveness.
Intergroup
Status and power
conflicts of two
professions; physical
distance.
Poor selection and
promotion decisions.
Poor training and
preparation.
Conflict on task
perspective; required
interaction contrary to
background factors.
Overload of
responsibility;
inappropriate
reporting
procedures
Conflicting group styles;
dysfunctional
competition.
Geographic setting;
limited labor market;
physical conditions.
System goals
inappropriate or poorly
defined; inappropriate
output levels.
General climate of
malaise, suspicion,
anxiety, pressure and
so forth.
Leadership
Total
System
Individual not like
and/or respected; in
conflict with other
sources of power.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM 14-7
Methods of Changing Background
Factors
METHOD OF
CHANGE
FOCAL POINT
1. Personnel changes
Individual
Two-person relationship
Group
Leadership
2. Training and
education
Individual
Leadership
3. Technology and
layout
Any level
Individual
Group
4. Incentive plans
Individual
Group
5. Background culture
Total system
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
Methods of Changing the Required
System
METHOD OF
TM 14-8
CHANGE
1. Revision of job descriptions and work
relationships:
Reporting relationships.
Task role assignments.
Managerial responsibility.
2. Job modification:
Job narrowing.
Job enlargement.
Job enrichment.
FOCAL POINT
Individual.
Interpersonal.
Intergroup.
Leadership.
Group.
Individual.
Two-person relation.
Group.
3. Quality Circles; Problem-solving teams;
employee involvement;
process teams; self-managing teams.
Group.
4. Alternative work schedules.
Individual.
Group.
5. Work from home.
6. Reformulation of work objectives.
Total system.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
TM14-9
Methods of Changing
Emergent Factors
METHOD OF
CHANGE
FOCAL POINT
1. Counseling.
Individual.
Leadership.
2. Third -party consultation.
Two-person relation.
3. Task group training, team building.
Group.
4. Intergroup confrontation.
Intergroup relations.
5. Survey feedback.
Total system.
6. Executive planning and confrontation
sessions.
Total system.
© The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2001
GOOD LUCK
GETTING READY
FOR
THE TEST