Anatomy/Physiology
Part 1
Human Body
• Efficient, organized machine
• Disease occurs when the
machine doesn’t function
correctly
• Health care worker must
understand normal function
of body before
understanding the disease
process
Areas of Study
• Anatomy: Study of the form
and structure of an
organism
• Physiology: Study of the
profess of living organisms,
or why and how they work
• Pathophysiology: Study of
how disease occurs and
response of the body to
disease process
Cells
• Basic unit of structure and function in all living
things; make of protoplasm
– Protoplasm is the basic substance of life that makes
up all living things
• Microscopic organisms that carry on all
functions of life
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Take in food and oxygen
Produce heat and energy
Move and adapt to their environment
Eliminate wastes
Perform special functions
Reproduce to create new identical cells
Cell Membrane
• Outer protective
covering of a cell
• Superpermeable:
allows certain
substances to
enter and leave
cell while
preventing the
passage of other
substances
Cytoplasm
• Semifluid inside
the cell
membrane, but
not in the nucleus
• Contains water,
lipids, carbs,
minerals and salts
• Chemical reaction
site in cell
Organelles
• Cell structures
that help a cell
to function
• Located in
cytoplasm
Nucleus
• Mass in cytoplasm
• “Brain of the cell”
• Separated from
cytoplasm by a
nuclear membrane
that contains
pores to allow
substances to pass
• Controls many cell
activities: mitosis,
reproduction
Nucleolus
• One or more small
round bodies located
in the nucleus
• Important in
reproduction of the
cell
• Manufacture
ribosomes and
protein
• Ribosomes move to
cytoplasm to aid in
production of protein
Chromatin/Chromosomes
• Located in the nucleus
• Made up of deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and protein.
• Chromatin condenses to form rod
like structures/chromosomes
during cell reproduction
• Human cell has 46 chromosomes
or 23 pairs
• Each chromosome contains
30,000-45,000 genes
Genes
• Structure that carries
inherited characteristics
• Each gene has a specific and
unique sequence of about
1,000 pairs of DNA
– DNA carries genetic coding and
allows for exact duplication of
the cell
– DNA sequence is unique for
each individual
– Used as a identification tool. It
is more exact than
fingerprinting.
Centrosome
• Located in cytoplasm
near the nucleus
• Contains centrioles
important in
reproduction
• Thin spindle fibers
form between the
centrioles and attach
to chromosomes
• Creates an even
division of the
chromosomes in 2
new cells
Mitochondria
• Rod-shaped
organelles located
in cytoplasm
• “Powerhouse” of
the cell
• Break down carbs,
proteins, and fats
to produce ATP
which is an energy
source for the cell
Golgi Apparatus
• Stack of
membrane
layers in the
cytoplasm
• Produces,
stores, and
packages
secretions for
discharge from
the cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum
• Tubular structures in
cytoplasm
• Aids in synthesis and
storage of proteins
• Rough: uses
ribosomes for
protein synthesis
• Smooth: assists with
cholesterol
synthesis, fat
metabolism, and
detoxification of
drugs
Lysomes
• Oval or round
bodies found in
the cytoplasm
• Contain
digestive
enzymes that
digest and
destroy old cells,
bacteria, and
foreign materials
Mitosis
• Asexual reproduction process used by most cells
• Cells reproduce by dividing into 2 identical cells
• Skin, blood forming, and industrial tract reproduce
continuously
• Muscle cells reproduce only every few years, but
muscle tissue can be enlarged with exercise
• Some specialized cells do not reproduce after birth
– Nerve cells in brain and spinal cord
– If these cells are damaged or destroyed, others are not
formed to replace them
Stem Cells
• Scientists are attempting to determine whether
stem cells can be transplanted into the body to
cure diseases such as diabetes, Parkinson’s, spinal
cord inj.
• Hope is that stem cells can be programmed to
produce new specialized cells that can replace a
body’s damaged cells and cure the disease
• 4-5 day embryo is used to obtain cells
• Blood from umbilical cord and placenta contain
stem cells
• Stem cells exist in adult tissues (bone
marrow/liver) but are unable to evolve into any
kind of cell
Tissues
• Cells of same type join
together for a common
purpose
• 60-99% water with various
substances dissolved in it
• Tissue fluid: Fluid in the
tissues, slightly salty in
nature
– Dehydration: insufficient
amount of tissue fluid
– Edema: Excess amount of
tissue fluid; swelling
Types of Tissues
• Epithelial Tissues
– Cover service of body and main
tissue in skin
– Forms lining of intestinal,
respiratory, circulatory, and
urinary tracts and other body
cavities
– Forms body glands where it
specializes to produce specific
secretions for the body, such as
mucus and digestive juice
Connective Tissue
• Supporting fabric of organs and other body parts
– Soft Connective Tissue
• Fatty tissue: Stores fat as reserve food/energy, insulates the body,
acts as padding
• Fibrous connective tissue: ligaments and tendons that help hold
body structure together
– Hard Connective Tissue
• Cartilage: Tough elastic material found between bones of spine
and at end of long bones where it acts as a shock absorber and
allows for flexibility. Found in nose, ears, larynx-provide shape
and form
• Blood and Lymph
– Classified as liquid connective tissue or vascular tissue
– Blood carries nutrients and oxygen to body cells and metabolic wastes
away from cells.
– Lymph transports tissue fluid, proteins, fats, and other materials from
the tissues to the circulatory system.
More Tissues
• Nerve tissues
– Made of special cells called neurons
– Control and coordinates body activities by transmitting
messages through the body
– Nerves, brain, and spinal cord are composed of nerve
tissues
• Muscle Tissue
– Produces power and movement through contraction of
muscle fibers
• Skeletal: attaches to bone and provides movement
• Cardiac: causes the heart to beat
• Visceral (smooth): in walls of the respiratory, digestive,
urinary tract, and blood vessels
Organs and Organ Systems
• Organ: Two or more tissue join
together for a specific function
– Heart, Stomach, Lungs
• Organ System: Organs and
other parts that join together
for a particular function
– Integumentary, skeletal, muscular,
circulatory, lymphatic, nervous,
respiratory, digestive, urinary or
excretory, endocrine, and
reproductive
Summary
• Protoplasm is basic substance of
life
• Protoplasm forms structural units
called cells
• Cells combine to form tissues
• Tissues combine to form organs
• Organs and other parts combine
to form systems
• Systems work together to create
miracle of human body
Body Planes
• Special terms
used when body
is in anatomical
position
– Body is facing
forward
– Standing erect
– Holding arms at
sides with palms
of hands facing
forward
Body Planes
• Imaginary lines drawn through
the body at various parts to
separate the body into
sections
• Directional lines are create by
these planes
• Transverse Plane:
– Horizontal plane dividing the
body into top and bottom halves
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Superior: body parts above
Inferior: body parts below
Cranial: body parts near head
Caudal: body parts near the sacral
region or “tail”
Body Planes
• Midsagital/Median Plane
– Divides body into right and left
• Medial: Body parts close to
midline or plane
• Lateral: Body parts away from
midline or plane
• Frontal/Coronal Plane
– Divides body into front and
back sections
• Ventral/Anterior: body parts in
front of the plane or body
• Dorsal/Posterior: body parts on
the back of the body or plane
Directional Terms
• Used to describe the relationship of one part to
the point of reference
• Proximal: Body part close to the point of
reference
• Distal: Body parts away from the point of
reference
Example: Wrist is disital and elbow is proximal to the
shoulder
Abdominal Regions
• Quadrants
– Right upper quadrant
(RUQ)
– Left upper quadrant (LUQ)
– Right lower quadrant
(RLQ)
– Left lower quadrant (LLQ)’
• Regions
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Epigastric
Umbilical
Hypogastric/Pelvic
Hypochondriac
Lumbar
Illiac/Umbilical
Skin
• Skin has been called a membrane because it
covers the body
• Also called an organ because it contains several
kinds of tissues
• Most studies call it a system because it has
organs and other parts that work together for a
particular function
• On average, Adult skin covers over 3,000 square
inches of surface area and accounts for 15% of
body weight
Skin Layers
• Epidermis: Outermost layer
– Made up of 5-6 smaller layers
– Contains no blood vessels or
nerve cells
• Dermis: “true skin”
– Elastic connective tissue
– Contains blood vessels, lymph
vessels, nerves, sweat and oil
glands, and hair follicles
• Subcutaneus/Hyperdermis:
Innermost layer of skin
– Elastic fibrous connective
tissue and fatty tissue
– Connects skin to muscle
• Glands
Parts of Skin
– Sweat glands
• Coiled tubes that extend
through dermis
• Open on surface of skin at
an opening called a pore
• Eliminate sweat or
perspiration that contains
water, salts and some
body wastes
– Sebaceous/Oil Glands
• Usually open onto a hair
follicle
• Keep hair from becoming
dry/brittle
Other parts of Integumentary System
• Nails
– Protect fingers and toes from injury
– Made of dead keratinized epidermal epithelial cells
which are packed closely together to form a thick, dense
surface
– Cells will regrow if lost if nail bed is not damaged
• Hair
– Helps protects the body
– Covers all body surfaces except the palms of the hands
and soles of the feet
• Alopecia or baldness
– Permanent loss of hair on the scalp
– Genetic condition
Functions
• Protection
– Barrier for ultraviolet rays
– Protects against pathogens and germs
• Sensory Perception
– Nerves present in skin respond to pain,
pressure, temperature and touch
• Regulation of body temperature
– Blood vessels retain or loose heat by dilating
or constricting
Functions
• Storage
– Temporary storage of fat which can later be used as a
source of energy
• Absorption
– Allows for some substances to be absorbed into the
skin (transdermal)
• Excretion
– Helps body eliminate salt and moisture through sweat
• Production
– Skin helps in the production of vitamin D
Skin Eruptions
• Macules: Flat spots on skin (freckles)
• Papules: Firm raised areas (pimples, chicken
pox)
• Vesicles: Sacs of fluid (blisters)
• Pustules: Sacs filled with pus (black head)
• Crusts: Areas of dried pus or blood (scabs)
• Wheals: Itchy elevated area with irregular
shape (hive, bite)
• Ulcer: Deep loss of skin surface that may extend
into the dermis
Skin Diseases and Abnormal
Conditions
• Athlete’s foot
– Contagious fungal infection usually on the feet
• Symptoms: Skin itches, blisters, and cracks into open sores
• Treatment: Antifungal medication, keep area clean and dry
• Dermatitis
– Inflammation of the skin caused by a substance that irritates
the skin
• Contact dermatitis: contact with substance like poison ivy, oak ,
sumac
• Frequently caused by allergic reactions to pollen, cosmetics, foods
• Symptoms: Dry red skin, itching, edema, macular-papular rash,
scaling
• Treatment: Eliminate cause, anti-inflammatory ointments,
antihistamines, steroids
More Skin Disorders
• Eczema:
– Noncontiguous inflammatory skin disorder
• Caused by reaction to irritant, soaps, medication, emotional stress
• Symptoms: Dryness, erythema, edema, itching, vesicles, crusts,
scaling
• Treatment: Remove irritant and apply corticosteroids
• Ringworm
– Highly contagious fungal infection of skin or scalp
• Symptoms: flat or raised circular area with clear central area
surrounded by an itchy scaly or crusty ring
• Treatment: Antifungal medication
• Verrucae/warts
– Viral infection of skin that form rough, hard, elevated skin
surface
• Removed with electricity, liquid nitrogen, acid, chemicals, or laser